Biology Chapter 2 Quiz

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Questions and Answers

What defines a compound?

A substance consisting of only one type of atom.

A substance made of two or more different elements chemically bonded. (correct)

The basic unit of an element, consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

A group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest unit of a substance.

Which type of bond is characterized by the transfer of electrons?

Covalent bond

Hydrogen bond

Hydrophobic interaction

Ionic bond (correct)

What does electronegativity measure?

An atom's ability to attract electrons in a bond. (correct)

The charge of an ion.

The size of an atom compared to others.

The number of protons in an atom.

Which statement best describes polar molecules?

They have unequal sharing of electrons, creating partial charges. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of a solvent in a solution?

To dissolve the solute and form a mixture. Signup and view all the answers

What additional component is found in plant cells but not in animal cells?

Chloroplast Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is primarily responsible for ATP production in cells?

Mitochondria Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of ribosomes in the cell?

Make proteins Signup and view all the answers

What role does the Golgi apparatus play in cellular function?

Modification and shipping of proteins Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes the structure of the cell membrane?

Phospholipid bilayer with proteins and cholesterol Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is not part of the endomembrane system?

Mitochondria Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of lysosomes?

Digestion and recycling of materials Signup and view all the answers

What structural feature distinguishes a phospholipid?

Hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail Signup and view all the answers

Which molecule serves as a primary energy storage component in the body?

Lipid Signup and view all the answers

Which component of the cytoskeleton is involved in cellular movement?

Microtubules Signup and view all the answers

What type of reaction involves the formation of a larger molecule by releasing a water molecule?

Dehydration reaction Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary structural component of bacterial cells?

Cell wall Signup and view all the answers

Which functional group is characterized as acidic due to its ability to donate protons?

Carboxyl Signup and view all the answers

During protein processing, what happens after the rough ER synthesizes proteins?

Transport vesicles carry proteins to the Golgi apparatus Signup and view all the answers

How do proteins primarily differ from one another?

By their unique R groups Signup and view all the answers

Which structure provides genetic material storage in the cell?

Nucleus Signup and view all the answers

What type of cell structure is shared by all cells, regardless of being prokaryotic or eukaryotic?

Plasma membrane Signup and view all the answers

Which component of a plant cell is primarily responsible for maintaining turgor pressure?

Central vacuole Signup and view all the answers

Which molecule is essential for synthesizing proteins based on genetic information?

RNA Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic cells?

Lack of nuclear membrane Signup and view all the answers

What is not a function of the plasma membrane?

Energy production Signup and view all the answers

Cholesterol contributes to cell membrane stability by:

Modulating the spacing between phospholipids Signup and view all the answers

Which carbohydrate serves primarily as a structural component in plants?

Cellulose Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes hydrophobic amino acids from hydrophilic ones?

The polarity of their side chains Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following organisms is characterized as being prokaryotic?

Eubacteria Signup and view all the answers

The main role of dehydration synthesis in carbohydrate formation is to:

Join monosaccharides into larger molecules Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of isomers?

They can exhibit different physical and chemical properties. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of phospholipids in the cell membrane?

To provide a barrier between two aqueous environments Signup and view all the answers

What function does cholesterol perform in the cell membrane?

Enhances the structural integrity of the membrane Signup and view all the answers

Which type of protein is responsible for allowing the passage of small hydrophilic molecules through the lipid bilayer?

Transport proteins Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes passive transport?

Occurs through diffusion and does not require energy Signup and view all the answers

Active transport involves which of the following?

Utilization of ATP to move substances Signup and view all the answers

Facilitated diffusion requires which components?

Carrier or channel proteins Signup and view all the answers

What are sodium-potassium pumps primarily responsible for?

Transporting sodium and potassium ions across the membrane Signup and view all the answers

In glycolysis, which molecule is formed from glucose?

Pyruvate Signup and view all the answers

What is produced during the energy investment phase of glycolysis?

ATP Signup and view all the answers

Where does oxidative phosphorylation occur in the cell?

Inner membrane of the mitochondria Signup and view all the answers

What defines selective permeability in a membrane?

Specific transport of certain molecules while excluding others Signup and view all the answers

What is the major output of glycolysis?

2 molecules of NADH Signup and view all the answers

What is a function of recognition proteins?

To identify and differentiate between cells Signup and view all the answers

Which process describes phagocytosis?

Ingestion of large particles via membrane engulfing Signup and view all the answers

Where does pyruvate oxidation occur in prokaryotic cells?

Cytoplasm Signup and view all the answers

Which molecule is produced during pyruvate oxidation?

NADH Signup and view all the answers

What is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain?

Oxygen Signup and view all the answers

Which process is involved in the production of ATP during oxidative phosphorylation?

Chemiosmosis Signup and view all the answers

What does the citric acid cycle primarily produce per acetyl-CoA molecule?

3 NADH, 1 ATP, 2 CO2 Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the Calvin Cycle?

To convert carbon dioxide into sugar Signup and view all the answers

Which enzyme catalyzes the first step of the Calvin Cycle?

Rubisco Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the light reactions in photosynthesis?

To capture light energy and convert it to chemical energy Signup and view all the answers

How does water contribute to the light reactions of photosynthesis?

It serves as an electron donor and is split to release oxygen. Signup and view all the answers

In which part of the chloroplast does the Calvin Cycle occur?

Stroma Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes an enzyme?

A protein that acts as a catalyst Signup and view all the answers

Where does the citric acid cycle take place in eukaryotic cells?

Mitochondrial matrix Signup and view all the answers

Which reactants are needed for ATP production by ATP synthase?

ADP and phosphate group Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of an inhibitor in enzyme activity?

It decreases enzyme activity Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of NADH in cellular respiration?

To transport electrons to the ETC Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly represents a competitive inhibitor's function?

Blocking access to the active site by competing with the substrate Signup and view all the answers

What overall equation summarizes the process of photosynthesis?

6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2 Signup and view all the answers

How do temperature fluctuations affect enzyme activity?

They can denature the enzyme or reduce activity Signup and view all the answers

Which of these statements about chemiosmosis is correct?

It involves ATP production due to proton movement through ATP synthase. Signup and view all the answers

Which process do photosynthesis and cellular respiration have in common?

Both involve energy conversion processes Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of the Calvin Cycle?

To fix carbon dioxide into glucose Signup and view all the answers

What is the main product generated by the Calvin Cycle?

G3P Signup and view all the answers

What does signal transduction involve?

The process of amplifying a response to a cell signal Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the small molecules that relay signals within a cell?

Second messengers Signup and view all the answers

Which type of cell communication involves a ligand binding to a receptor on the same cell?

Autocrine signaling Signup and view all the answers

Why is amplification important in cell signaling?

To ensure a bigger and more organized response Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during the conformational change of a receptor?

The receptor changes shape to activate function Signup and view all the answers

What does the law of independent assortment state regarding the arrangement of chromosomes during meiosis?

Chromosomes arrange randomly on the metaphase plate. Signup and view all the answers

How does the law of segregation specifically affect the alleles of a single gene during meiosis?

It guarantees that one allele of a gene goes to each gamete. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary consequence of nondisjunction during meiosis?

It leads to an abnormal number of chromosomes in gametes. Signup and view all the answers

What term refers to the location of a gene on a chromosome?

Locus Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a consequence of chromosomal rearrangements for human health?

They can disrupt normal gene function, causing genetic disorders. Signup and view all the answers

How do phenotypes relate to genotypes at the molecular level?

Genotypes encode information that is expressed through transcription and translation. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the centromere in chromosome structure?

It serves as the attachment point for spindle fibers during cell division. Signup and view all the answers

What does aneuploidy refer to in terms of chromosomal abnormalities?

An abnormal number of one or more chromosomes. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the ovaries in the female reproductive system?

Producing eggs and hormones Signup and view all the answers

What role does the oviduct play in the reproductive system?

Transports the egg and is the site of fertilization Signup and view all the answers

What triggers ovulation in the female reproductive cycle?

A surge in luteinizing hormone (LH) Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone is primarily responsible for maintaining the endometrium during pregnancy?

Progesterone Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome if fertilization does not occur?

Breakdown of the corpus luteum Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during the acrosome reaction of fertilization?

Sperm enzymes break down the zona pellucida Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the cleavage stage of development?

Rapid cell division without growth Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following hormones is primarily produced in the testes?

Testosterone Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of hormonal birth control?

To make the body think it is pregnant Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the placenta during pregnancy?

To provide oxygen and nutrients to the fetus Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone signals the corpus luteum to continue producing progesterone after implantation?

Human beta chorionic gonadotropin (𝛃-HCG) Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between mitosis and meiosis?

Meiosis involves two rounds of cell division Signup and view all the answers

At what point does an embryo transition into a fetus?

After 8 weeks Signup and view all the answers

Where does the majority of estrogen production occur in females?

Ovaries Signup and view all the answers

What occurs to the endometrium if implantation is successful?

It maintains its thickness and continues to grow Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the crucial roles of progesterone during the first trimester of pregnancy?

To maintain the endometrial lining Signup and view all the answers

What process is described when the cervix widens to prepare for delivery?

Dilation Signup and view all the answers

What initiates the process of spermatogenesis?

Release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Signup and view all the answers

How does apoptosis contribute to human development?

It allows for the elimination of unnecessary cells Signup and view all the answers

What may result from low levels of both estrogen and progesterone?

Start of the menstrual cycle Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly describes the interaction between genes in epistasis?

One gene suppresses the effect of another gene. Signup and view all the answers

What defines a dominant allele in genetics?

An allele that is fully expressed in the phenotype of a heterozygote Signup and view all the answers

How do hormones within the embryo control its development?

They influence cell differentiation through concentration gradients. Signup and view all the answers

What does polygenic inheritance refer to?

Traits influenced by multiple genes Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of a homozygous organism?

Having two identical alleles for a given gene Signup and view all the answers

What does the blending hypothesis of inheritance propose?

Offspring will have intermediate characteristics of their parents. Signup and view all the answers

Which genetic term describes variants of genes that result in different traits?

Alleles Signup and view all the answers

What occurs when a hydrophilic ligand binds to its receptor?

Conformational change in the receptor Signup and view all the answers

How do lipid-soluble ligands generally differ from hydrophilic ligands in terms of receptor location?

Lipid-soluble ligands interact with cytoplasmic or nuclear receptors. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of a G-protein when activated by a ligand-receptor complex?

To initiate a signaling cascade inside the cell Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of continuously active signaling pathways in cells?

Uncontrolled cell growth and potential tumor formation Signup and view all the answers

During cellular signaling, what role do second messengers play?

They amplify the signal initiated by the receptor. Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic structural feature of hydrophobic ligands?

Significant carbon and hydrogen content with nonpolar bonds Signup and view all the answers

Which type of hormone is primarily responsible for regulating sleep-wake cycles?

Melatonin from the Pineal Gland Signup and view all the answers

What happens during spermatogenesis after the formation of secondary spermatocytes?

They enter meiosis II to produce spermatids. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the pituitary gland within the endocrine system?

Acts as a master gland regulating other endocrine glands Signup and view all the answers

What initiates a phosphorylation cascade during signal transduction?

A receptor itself being an enzyme Signup and view all the answers

What is the main feature of oogenesis as it occurs in females?

A polar body is generated alongside the secondary oocyte during each cycle. Signup and view all the answers

What triggers the resumption of meiosis in primary oocytes at puberty?

Hormonal signals from the pituitary gland Signup and view all the answers

How is signal termination achieved in cell signaling pathways?

By breaking down ligands and dephosphorylation Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a possible cellular response to signaling pathways?

Chlorophyll synthesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the thymus gland in childhood?

Maturation of immune cells Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Unit 1: Biological Macromolecules

Basic Chemistry Concepts: Element, compound, molecule, atom, electronegativity, nonpolar, polar, covalent bonds, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, cation, anion, hydrophilic, hydrophobic, pH, solvent, solute, solution. These terms describe the fundamental building blocks and interactions of matter, critical for understanding biological molecules.
Importance of 3D Structure: Molecular structure (e.g., tetrahedral) affects properties and function. Isomers have the same formula but different arrangements, leading to different properties. An example given is protein structure affecting its function, like a transmembrane domain that forms a channel or binding site for molecules across a membrane.
Functional Groups: Hydroxyl (-OH), carboxyl (-COOH), amino (-NH₂), phosphate (-PO₄). Each group has specific properties (polarity, acidity) influencing the behavior of larger molecules containing them.
Dehydration and Hydrolysis: Dehydration reactions build larger molecules by removing water; hydrolysis breaks down larger molecules by adding water.

Carbohydrates

Monomers, Dimers, Polymers: Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose) are the monomers; polysaccharides are polymers. Examples of polymers include starch and glycogen (function as storage molecules), and cellulose (structure).
Structural and Functional Differences: Starch/glycogen have a twisted structure for compact glucose storage; cellulose has a straight structure enabling hydrogen bonding between strands. They differ in their functions and forms; starch/glycogen are storage molecules, cellulose is a structural component.
Carbohydrate Functions: Energy storage (storing glucose, forming starch and glycogen), and structural support (cellulose). Different sugars form diverse molecular compounds, e.g., glucose becomes maltose, sucrose, and lactose.

Lipids

Categories: Fats, proteins, steroids, and phospholipids. Focus on fats and phospholipids for this unit.
Fat Function: Energy storage (more than carbohydrates can) and insulation/cushioning.
Phospholipid Structure: Hydrophilic head, hydrophobic tail. Diagram needed, showing these components.
Phospholipid Function: Crucial for creating a hydrophobic barrier that divides aqueous solutions, e.g., cell membranes.
Cholesterol Function: Maintaining membrane stability and fluidity, acting as a “buffer,” by preventing overly tight packing/too much movement of phospholipids at different temperatures.
Steroid Hormone Production: Cholesterol is a precursor for steroidal hormones.

Proteins

4 Protein Functions: Defense, transport, signaling, receptor action, structure, and contraction.
Building Blocks: Monomers are amino acids; polymers are polypeptides.
Amino Acid Differences: R-groups (20 unique) create differences in function and properties, causing differences among the 20 types of amino acids.
Amino Acid Groups: Nonpolar (hydrophobic), polar (hydrophilic), and charged (hydrophilic).
Structure-Function Relationship: Protein structure (primary to quaternary) directly dictates the protein's function.

Nucleic Acids

Monomer and Polymer: Monomers are nucleotides; polymers are polynucleotides. Examples are DNA and RNA.
DNA & RNA Functions: DNA stores genetic information and instructions. RNA uses this information to produce proteins. (DNA → RNA → protein)

Cell Structures and Membrane Transport

Cell Theory: All living things are made of one or more cells; all cells come from existing cells.
Cell Size Limitations: Cells require a large surface area to volume ratio to effectively exchange materials across the plasma membrane.
Universal Cell Features: Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and genetic material (usually DNA).
Prokaryote/Eukaryote Differences: Prokaryotic cells (smaller, less complex, single chromosome) vs eukaryotic cells (larger, complex, multiple chromosomes).
Plant/Animal Cell Differences: Plant cells have cell walls (cellulose), chloroplasts, and a central vacuole; animal cells do not.
Endomembrane System: Includes nuclear envelope, ER, Golgi apparatus, plasma membrane, lysosomes (animals), and central vacuole (plants). Describes the production, processing, and targeting of proteins within the cell.
Cell Membrane Structure: Phospholipid bilayer (hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails), cholesterol, membrane proteins.
Fluid Mosaic Model: The membrane is a fluid structure where components can move laterally.
Membrane Components: Phospholipid bilayer, proteins (enzymes, receptors, attachment, transport, junction, recognition), and cholesterol.
Selective Permeability: Membranes are selectively permeable, allowing specific molecules to pass through, regulated by the properties of the membrane components (e.g., phospholipids, proteins).
Membrane Transport: Passive (diffusion, facilitated) vs Active (sodium potassium pump), including both facilitated and direct diffusion.
Endocytosis and Exocytosis: Internalization and secretion of membrane components. Diagram needed, showing phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and exocytosis.

Energy Processing & Enzymes

Cellular Respiration: Glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
Overall Respiration Equation: 6O₂ + C₆H₁₂O₆ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + energy (ATP) Locations of each phase (plant and animal cells). Includes information on the breakdown of glucose as it moves from one part of the cell to another.
Glycolysis: Two phases (energy investment, energy payoff) producing a net gain of 2 ATP and 2 NADH from starting glucose. Describes the location and products of each component of glycolysis.
Pyruvate Oxidation: Occurs in mitochondrial matrix of eukaryotes. Produces Acetyl CoA, NADH, and CO₂. Explains energy and atom movement during pyruvate oxidation.
Citric Acid Cycle: Takes place in mitochondrial matrix. Produces 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH₂, and 2 CO₂ per cycle. Explains energy and atom movement during the citric acid cycle.
Oxidative Phosphorylation: Electron transport chain (ETC) and chemiosmosis. The ETC creates a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane, driving ATP synthesis through chemiosmosis.
Photosynthesis: Light-dependent reactions (thylakoid membranes) and light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle, stroma)
Overall Photosynthesis Equation: 6CO₂+ 6H₂O + light energy → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
Photosynthesis Purpose: Converting light energy to chemical energy (glucose); producing oxygen.
Light Reactions: Absorption of light energy, production of ATP and NADPH, water splitting to release O₂.
Calvin Cycle: Carbon dioxide fixation, sugar production (G3P), using ATP and NADPH from light reactions.
Enzyme Function and structure: Biological catalysts.
Enzyme Variables: Temperature, pH, substrate concentration, and enzyme concentration.
Enzyme Inhibitors: Competitive and noncompetitive.
Photosynthesis-Respiration Relationship: Photosynthesis produces oxygen and glucose, while cellular respiration uses them. Both processes are interconnected. Their relationship is described in the equation.

Unit 2: Cell Communication, Reproduction, & Development

Cell Communication Concepts: Ligand, receptor, conformational change, signal transduction, amplification, signaling cascade, phosphorylation cascade, kinase, second messenger.
Cell Signaling Stages: Reception, signal transduction, and response; with reference to the signaling pathways used by cells in conjunction with the different types of receptors in the cell membrane.
Ligand Types: Hydrophobic (e.g., steroid hormones) versus hydrophilic (e.g., peptide hormones).
Reception Mechanisms: Hydrophilic ligands bind to cell-surface receptors; hydrophobic ligands bind to intracellular receptors.
Receptor Types and Signaling Pathways: Ion channel-linked, G protein-linked, and enzyme-linked receptors; describing the different pathways. The effect of ligand binding on the receptor.
Signal Relay and Amplification: Phosphorylation cascades and second messengers amplify the signal within the cell.
Cellular Responses: Gene expression, cellular metabolism, cell growth, and apoptosis.
Signal Termination: Essential to prevent uncontrolled responses. Methods include ligand breakdown, receptor endocytosis, dephosphorylation, and second-messenger uptake.
Endocrine System Glands and Hormones: Names, locations, major hormones, and general functions of hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, thyroid, thymus, pancreas, adrenal glands, ovaries, and testes. Provides information on how each type of hormone regulates different body systems.
Reproduction - Spermatogenesis: Diploid spermatogonia undergo mitosis to produce more spermatogonia; then meiosis producing 4 sperm from each primary spermatocyte. Occurs in seminiferous tubules. Begins at puberty.
Reproduction - Oogenesis: Begins in embryo with oocyte production. Primary oocytes arrest in prophase I before birth; at puberty, meiosis resumes one oocyte per cycle, forming secondary oocyte and polar bodies. Arrested at metaphase II until fertilization. Occurs in ovaries.
Female Reproductive Structures: Ovaries, oviduct, uterus, endometrium, cervix, and vagina, outlining each structures function.
Male Reproductive Structures: Testes, scrotum, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle, prostate, bulbourethral gland, urethra, and penis, outlining each structures function.
Hormonal Regulation of Menstrual Cycle: FSH, LH, estrogen, and progesterone govern ovarian and uterine cycles. Explains the function of hormones for reproductive process and their regulation.
Fertilization: Stages of sperm activation, enzyme release, sperm binding, and membrane fusion. Explains how fertilization occurs.
Hormonal Birth Control: Overview of how hormonal methods work.
Development: Zygote formation, morula, blastocyst, implantation, embryo/fetus definitions. Describes the process and formation of the placenta. Role of hormones (e.g., hCG, progesterone).
Apoptosis: A form of programmed cell death crucial for development and maintenance.
Parturition: The birthing process. Role of oxytocin and prostaglandins in uterine contractions.

Unit 3: Genetics

Mendelian Genetics Terms: Gene, allele, genotype, phenotype, dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, complete dominance, codominance - different ways traits can combine.
Mendel’s Hypotheses: Blending hypothesis (incorrect) versus particulate hypothesis (correct, traits inherited in discrete units).
Punnett Squares: Used to predict offspring genotypes and phenotypes for one or two genes. Includes examples: complete dominance, incomplete dominance, codominance.
Sex-Linked Genes: Inheritance patterns determined by genes on sex chromosomes.
Pedigree Analysis: Analyzing family histories to determine inheritance patterns.
Law of Independent Assortment: Genes on different chromosomes are inherited independently; explained by random chromosome alignment during meiosis I.
Law of Segregation: Alleles for the same gene segregate during gamete formation; each gamete receives only one allele. Explained by chromosome separation in meiosis.
Linked Genes: Genes located close together on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together.
Chromosome Structure: Centromere, p arm, q arm; Locus definitions of location for genes on a chromosome; including chromosomal rearrangements (deletions, duplications, inversions, translocations)
Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction: Aneuploidy is an abnormal number of chromosomes; nondisjunction is the failure of chromosomes to separate in meiosis, leading to an abnormal number of chromosomes in gametes.
Karyotype: A visual representation of an organism's chromosomes.
Environmental Impact on Phenotype: Environmental factors can influence the expression of a genotype.
Genotype-Phenotype Relationship: Genotype (DNA) dictates phenotype (observable traits) through the processes of transcription and translation.

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