Biology Chapter 2: Cellular Processes and Reactions
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Questions and Answers

What is the main difference between a compound and an element?

  • A compound contains only one type of atom.
  • A compound consists of two or more elements chemically combined. (correct)
  • An element is made up of two or more compounds.
  • Elements can be broken down into smaller parts.

    • A neutral solution has a pH of 7.

    True

    Define a hydrogen bond.

    A hydrogen bond is a weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom, often oxygen or nitrogen.

    The pH of acids ranges from _____ to _____ while the pH of bases ranges from _____ to _____.

    <p>0, 6, 8, 14</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the macromolecule with its correct function.

    <p>Carbohydrates = Energy source Lipids = Long-term energy storage Nucleic Acids = Genetic information storage Proteins = Catalyzing biochemical reactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the reactants in the chemical reaction O2 + 2H2 → 2H2O?

    <p>O2 and 2H2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Enzymes are also known as catalysts.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percent of water on average makes up the human body?

    <p>Approximately 60-70%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of photosynthesis?

    <p>To produce glucose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mitochondria are organelles found in plant cells only.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the waste products of cellular respiration?

    <p>Carbon dioxide and water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process of photosynthesis occurs in the ______.

    <p>chloroplasts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following processes with their definitions:

    <p>Photosynthesis = Process of converting light energy into chemical energy Cellular Respiration = Process of breaking down glucose for energy Glycolysis = The initial step of cellular respiration Fermentation = Anaerobic process that follows glycolysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following molecules is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain?

    <p>Oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fermentation produces more ATP than aerobic respiration.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process of cell division in eukaryotes called?

    <p>Mitosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ cycle occurs in the mitochondria and helps produce ATP.

    <p>Krebs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of reproduction involves the fusion of gametes?

    <p>Sexual reproduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes abiotic factors?

    <p>Physical and chemical components of the environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Producers are organisms that can create their own energy through photosynthesis.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary source of energy for ecosystems?

    <p>The sun</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In an ecosystem, consumers obtain their energy by eating ______.

    <p>other organisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of consumers with their definitions:

    <p>Herbivore = An organism that eats plants Carnivore = An organism that eats other animals Omnivore = An organism that eats both plants and animals Decomposer = An organism that breaks down dead matter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of keystone species in an ecosystem?

    <p>To maintain the structure and balance of the ecosystem</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Secondary succession occurs in an area that has no soil.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Define ecological succession.

    <p>The process by which ecosystems change and develop over time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A biomass pyramid represents the total mass of ______ at each trophic level.

    <p>living organisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following processes is part of the carbon cycle?

    <p>Photosynthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Climate change only affects temperature and not any living organisms.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is nutrient limitation?

    <p>The restriction of growth or productivity in an ecosystem due to a deficiency of essential nutrients.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The water cycle is also known as the ______.

    <p>hydrological cycle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the ecological footprint measure?

    <p>The area of biosphere required to produce resources and absorb waste</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    UNIT 1: MACROMOLECULES - CH 2

    • Atoms: Basic units of matter
    • Protons: Positively charged particles found in the atomic nucleus
    • Neutrons: Neutral particles found in the atomic nucleus
    • Electrons: Negatively charged particles orbiting the nucleus
    • Nucleus of an atom: Contains protons and neutrons
    • Element: A substance composed of only one type of atom
    • Atomic number: The number of protons in an atom's nucleus
    • Valence electrons: Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom, involved in chemical bonding
    • Compound: A substance formed by the chemical combination of two or more different elements
    • Covalent bonds: Bonds formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms. Example: Water (H₂O)
    • Ionic bonds: Bonds formed by the transfer of electrons between atoms.
    • Lizard walking on water: A specialized adaptation using surface tension and water cohesion.

    2.2 Properties of Water

    • Hydrogen bond: A weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative atom (often oxygen or nitrogen) in another molecule.
    • Cohesion: Attraction between like molecules. Example- water molecules sticking together.
    • Adhesion: Attraction between unlike molecules. Example - water molecules sticking to a glass surface.
    • Water in the human body: Approximately 60-70%
    • Solution: A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
    • Solute: The substance dissolved in a solution
    • Solvent: The substance that dissolves the solute
    • pH range for acids: 0-7
    • pH range for bases: 7-14
    • Neutral pH: 7
    • Buffer: A substance that resists changes in pH.

    2.3 Carbon Compounds

    • Monomer: A single repeating unit of a polymer
    • Polymer: A large molecule formed by the repeating units of monomers
    Macromolecule Elements Monomer Polymer Function
    Carbohydrates C, H, O Monosaccharide Polysaccharide Energy storage, structural support
    Lipids C, H, O Fatty acid, glycerol Triglyceride, phospholipid Energy storage, insulation, structural components (cell membranes)
    Nucleic Acids C, H, O, N, P Nucleotide DNA, RNA Genetic information storage and transfer
    Proteins C, H, O, N Amino acid Polypeptide Structure, function (enzymes, hormones, transport)

    2.4 Chemical Reactions and Enzymes

    • Chemical reaction: Process where substances change into different substances.
    • Reactants: Substances that undergo change in a chemical reaction
    • Products: Substances produced by a chemical reaction
    • Equation O₂ + 2H₂ → 2H₂O - Balanced (Reactants: Oxygen and Hydrogen; Products: Water)
    • Activation energy: Energy needed to start a reaction
    • Catalyst: A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being consumed
    • Effect of catalyst on activation energy: Lowers activation energy; increases the speed of the reaction.
    • Enzymes: Biological catalysts, typically proteins
    • Are enzymes, catalysts?: Yes
    • Effect of enzyme on activation energy: Reduces activation energy (as shown in the graph)
    • Active sites: Specific regions on an enzyme where substrate molecules bind
    • Substrate: Reactant molecule that binds to an enzyme
    • One enzyme to many substrates?: No
    • Enzyme-substrate complex (illustration): Enzyme (A) binds to substrate (B) forming a complex (C & D); Products are released.
    • Factors affecting enzyme activity: Temperature, pH, and substrate concentration.

    UNIT 2: ECOLOGY - CH 3 & 4

    • Ecology: Study of the interactions of organisms with one another and with their environment
    • Organism: Living thing (e.g., a tree)
    • Population: Group of organisms of the same species living in the same area (e.g., all the trees of a species)
    • Community: All the populations of different species living in the same area (e.g., all living organisms in a forest)
    • Ecosystem: A community of organisms and their physical environment (e.g., the entire forest, including soil & climate)
    • Biome: A large region characterized by specific climate and plant communities (e.g., tundra)
    • Biosphere: The part of Earth where life exists
    • Biotic factors: Living components of an ecosystem (e.g., plants, animals, bacteria)
    • Abiotic factors: Non-living components of an ecosystem (e.g., sunlight, water, temperature)
    • Earth's four global systems: Interact constantly in cycles of matter and energy.
    • Ecosystem energy source: The sun
    • Producer: Organism that creates its own food through photosynthesis (e.g., plants)
    • Producer synonym: Autotroph
    • Photosynthesis: Process where plants use sunlight to make food
    • Consumers: Organisms that get energy by consuming other organisms (e.g., animals)
    • Herbivore: Consumer that eats plants only
    • Carnivore: Consumer that eats animals only
    • Omnivore: Consumer that eats both plants and animals
    • Decomposer: Consumer that breaks down dead organic matter (e.g., fungi, bacteria)
    • Specialist: Consumer that eats only one type of organism. Example - panda eats bamboo only
    • Generalist: Consumer that eats a variety of organisms. Example - raccoon eats various food sources.
    • Food chain: Linear sequence of organisms showing energy transfer
    • Food web: Network of interconnected food chains
    • Ecological pyramids: Models that show the distribution of energy and biomass at different trophic levels in an ecosystem
    • Biomass: Total mass of organisms in a given area or trophic level
    • Energy pyramid: Shows the amount of energy at each trophic level in an ecosystem; energy is lost as heat
    • Biomass pyramid: Shows the total biomass at each trophic level in an ecosystem.
    • Pyramid of numbers: Illustrates the number of organisms at each trophic level
    • Biogeochemical cycles: Processes that cycle matter through the living and non-living parts of an ecosystem
    • Water cycle: Process involving evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and collection of water.
    • Carbon cycle: Process involving carbon fixation, respiration, and combustion.
    • Carbon reservoir: Atmosphere (carbon dioxide) , fossil fuels
    • Nitrogen cycle: Process of converting nitrogen into usable forms for organisms.
    • Nitrogen fixation: Process converting nitrogen gas into ammonia.
    • Denitrification: Process converting nitrates back into nitrogen gas.
    • Phosphorus cycle: Process involving phosphate's movement in different parts of the biosphere.
    • Phosphate release: From weathering of rocks
    • Phosphorus cycle location: Earth's crust and oceans.
    • Nutrient limitation: Inability of an organism to grow or reproduce because of a lack of a specific nutrient
    • Species affected by nutrient limitation: Survival of plants and animals

    UNIT 2: ECOLOGY - CH 6 AND 5

    • Habitat: Physical place where an organism lives
    • Microhabitat: Small part of a habitat with specific conditions
    • Microbiome: Community of microorganisms inhabiting a specific habitat
    • Tolerance: An organism's ability to survive variations in its environment
    • Niche: An organism's role in its ecosystem, including its interactions, food sources, and interactions with other organisms. Example- role a lion plays in the savanna ecosystem
    • Competition: Interaction where organisms struggle for limited resources
    • Herbivore: Organisms that feed on plants
    • Herbivore impact: Affects plant populations, influencing plant diversity.
    • Keystone species: A species that has a disproportionately large effect on its ecosystem. Example - sea otters
    • Commensalism: One organism benefits, and the other is neither harmed nor benefited. Example - birds nesting in trees
    • Mutualism: Both organisms benefit. Example - bacteria living in the gut
    • Parasitism: One benefits, one is harmed. Example- tick on a dog
    • Ecological succession: Gradual changes in an ecosystem over time
    • Pioneer species: First species to establish in an area. Example - Lichens, grasses
    • Primary succession: Succession starting on bare rock
    • Secondary succession: Succession starting on disturbed land
    • Climax community: Stable, mature community at the end of succession
    • Biodiversity: Variety of life in an ecosystem and includes genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity
    • Resilience: Ability of an ecosystem to recover after disturbance
    • Conservation biology: Study of the conservation of species and ecosystems
    • Geographic range: Distribution area of a population
    • Density distribution: Even, clumped, or random organization of organism density in an area
    • Population growth rate =1: Population size stays constant
    • Population growth rate > 0: Population is growing
    • Population growth rate < 0: Population is shrinking
    • Factors increasing population size: Birth, immigration, resource availability
    • Factors decreasing population size: Death, emigration, resource scarcity
    • Exponential growth: Population growth accelerating without limitations.
    • Logistic growth: Population growth that levels off at the carrying capacity.
    • Carrying capacity: Maximum population size that an environment can sustain
    • Limiting factors: Factors that restrict population growth
    • Density-dependent limiting factors: Factors where effect is related to population density (e.g., competition, disease, predation)
    • Density-independent limiting factors: Factors where effect is not related to population density (e.g., natural disasters)
    • Demography: Study of human populations
    • Age structure diagrams: show the distribution of different age groups within a population, indicating potential growth patterns. More quickly populations will grow when it has a larger number of individuals in younger age groups.
    • Events shaped by resource availability: Species distribution; migration patterns; population fluctuations; extinction events

    UNIT 3: HUMAN IMPACT - CH 7

    • Ecological footprint: Amount of Earth's resources a human population uses
    • Resources in ecological footprints: Land, water, energy, and materials
    • Great Acceleration: Period of rapid human population and resource consumption growth (supported by text graphs)
    • Anthromes: Anthropogenic biomes, regions modified by humans
    • Climate change: Long-term variations in Earth's climate
    • Global warming: Increase in Earth's average temperature
    • Ocean acidification: Decrease in pH of the ocean due to absorption of CO₂ from the atmosphere
    • Steps of ocean acidification:
    1. CO₂ dissolves in seawater
    2. CO₂ reacts with water to form carbonic acid (H₂CO₃)
    3. Carbonic acid releases hydrogen ions (H⁺)
    4. This lowers the pH of the water, impacts marine life by affecting shells and skeletons
    • Algal blooms cause: Excessive nutrient input (eutrophication)
    • Algal bloom effects: Ecosystem disruption from excess nutrients
    • Monoculture: Large-scale planting of a single crop
    • Monoculture purpose: Increased efficiency in production, but decreased biodiversity
    • Deforestation: Cutting down of trees
    • Succession: Gradual changes in an ecosystem over time (already mentioned)
    • Reforestation: Planting of trees in deforested areas
    • Urbanization: Growth of cities and urban areas
    • Habitat loss: Reduction of natural habitats due to human activities
    • Habitat fragmentation: Breaking of large habitats into smaller, isolated pieces
    • Habitat restoration: Repairing and restoring damaged environments
    • Invasive species: Non-native species that outcompete native species and disrupt ecosystems
    • CFCs: Chlorofluorocarbons, banned for their ozone depletion effect.
    • Smog effect on ozone: Smog does not directly harm the ozone layer, but it can contain chemicals that contribute to air pollution.
    • Biological magnification: Increase in concentration of a pollutant as it moves up trophic levels
    • Pollutant concentration: Increases as pollutants move up trophic levels for example through food chains
    • Lead dangers: Neurological damage, developmental problems, and other health problems
    • IPCC data on climate change: Shows increasing temperatures, rising sea levels, etc.
    • Climate change ecological impacts: Altered habitats, species migration, and ecosystem instability
    • Sustainable development: Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
    • Renewable resources: Resources that can be replenished (e.g., solar energy, wind energy)
    • Nonrenewable resources: Resources that cannot be replenished (e.g., fossil fuels)
    • Complex ecosystems: Interconnected systems, like the Amazon rainforest
    • Humans in complex ecosystems: Often damage biodiversity and stability through human activity
    • Resilience and sustainable development: Related but distinct; resilience is about adapting to change, while sustainable development focuses on avoiding harm to future generations.
    • Scientific research impact: Drives solutions and promotes environmental awareness.

    UNIT 4: CELLS - CH 9 & 10

    • Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells (Summary): Prokaryotes are simpler, lacking membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotes have a nucleus and other organelles.

    • Prokaryotic Cell Description (Textbook Page 258):

    • Describes the simpler structure with few organelles

    • Eukaryotic Cell Description (Textbook Page 259):

    • Describes the more complex structure with various membrane-bound organelles.

    Photosynthesis And Cellular Respiration

    Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration
    Organelle Chloroplasts Mitochondria
    Organelle Type Plant Cell Animal and Plant Cell
    Process Definition Plants use sunlight to make food Cells break down food to release energy
    Process Goal Make glucose Make energy (ATP)
    Chemical Equation 6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + 36 ATP
    Reactants Carbon dioxide, water, and light energy Glucose and oxygen
    Products Glucose and oxygen Carbon dioxide and water and energy (ATP)
    Waste Product(s) Water Carbon dioxide and water

    • Photosynthesis:

    • Organelle: Chloroplast

    • Cell type: Plant cell

    • Equation: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + light energy → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ (Reactants: carbon dioxide, water, and light energy) (Products: glucose and oxygen)

    • Reactants: carbon dioxide, water, light energy

    • Goal: Produce glucose

    • Waste product: Oxygen

    • Light-dependent reaction location: Thylakoid membranes

    • Light-dependent reaction power source: Light

    • Light-independent reaction location: Stroma

    • Light-independent reaction power source: ATP and NADPH

    • Inorganic carbon molecule into dark reaction: CO₂

    • Organic carbon molecule made: Glucose

    • Cellular Respiration

    • Organelle: Mitochondria

    • Cell type: Plant and animal cell

    • Equation: C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + 36 ATP (Reactants: glucose and oxygen) (Products: carbon dioxide, water, and 36 ATP)

    • Reactants: Glucose, oxygen

    • Goal: Produce energy (ATP)

    • Waste products: Carbon dioxide, water

    • Carbon source in CO₂: Glucose

    • Waste product used in photosynthesis: Carbon dioxide

    • Glycolysis - Location: Cytosol - Starting ATP: 2 - Glycolysis product: Pyruvate. - ATP produced: 2

    • Respiration (Krebs Cycle/Electron Transport Chain) - Location: Mitochondrial matrix - Krebs Cycle ingredients: Pyruvate - Krebs Cycle products: ATP, NADH, FADH₂ and CO₂ - Electron Transport Chain final electron acceptor :Oxygen - Water made: Electron Transport Chain - ATP produced in Krebs cycle: 2 ATP - ATP produced in Electron Transport Chain: 32 ATP

    • Fermentation - Two types: Alcohol fermentation and Lactic acid fermentation - Aerobic or anaerobic: Anaerobic - NADH during fermentation: Oxidized to NAD⁺ - Muscle soreness cause: Lactic acid fermentation - Additional ATP in fermentation: Zero ATP Produced in fermentation

    UNIT 4: CELLS - CH 11

    • Cell growth limitations: Surface area-to-volume ratio; DNA overload
    • Cell division key points: Copies DNA, divides cytoplasm, maintains genetic integrity
    • Asexual reproduction: Offspring are genetically identical to the parent
    • Sexual reproduction: Offspring inherit genetic material from two parents
    • Asexual vs. sexual reproduction comparison: Genetically identical offspring in asexual, while genetically diverse in sexual. Variability in sexual reproduction.
    • Chromosomes: Threadlike structures containing genetic information
    • Chromosome packaging in prokaryotes: Circular DNA
    • Chromosome packaging in eukaryotes: Linear DNA associated with proteins, packaged tightly
    • Binary fission: Prokaryotic cell division, a form of asexual reproduction; DNA replicates, the cell grows, the cell divides into two new identical cells.
    • Mitosis: Eukaryotic cell division, produces genetically identical daughter cells, part of cell cycle
    • Cyclins: Proteins that regulate the cell cycle
    • Internal vs. external regulators: Internal regulate conditions inside the cell; external from outside the cell; both regulate growth, division
    • Apoptosis: Programmed cell death; necessary for development and homeostasis
    • Cancer: Uncontrolled cell division due to malfunctioning regulatory genes
    • Cancer treatments: Surgery, radiation, chemotherapy
    • Cell differentiation: Process where cells become specialized for specific functions
    • Differentiation process: Cells express specific genes to perform unique roles in tissues & organs
    • Stem cells: Undifferentiated cells; can give rise to specialized cell types
    • Stem cell sources: Embryos, umbilical cord blood, and adult tissues
    • Stem cell abilities: Self-renewal and differentiation
    • Stem cell types: Embryonic, adult, induced pluripotent
    • Stem cell research pros: Potential to treat diseases, regenerate damaged tissues; improve understanding of development processes
    • Stem cell research cons: Ethical considerations surrounding embryonic stem cells; potential for misuse; ensuring safety and efficacy in treatments.

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    Test your knowledge on cellular processes including photosynthesis, respiration, and the roles of macromolecules. This quiz covers essential concepts such as pH levels, enzyme functions, and the mitochondria's role in energy production. Ideal for students studying biological sciences at the introductory level.

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