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Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of the parasympathetic nervous system?
What is the primary function of the parasympathetic nervous system?
What is the term for the movement of substances from the capillaries into the tissues?
What is the term for the movement of substances from the capillaries into the tissues?
What is the process by which the body produces all of the formed elements of blood?
What is the process by which the body produces all of the formed elements of blood?
What is the term for the pressure exerted by fluid within a blood vessel?
What is the term for the pressure exerted by fluid within a blood vessel?
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What is the role of activated effector helper T cells?
What is the role of activated effector helper T cells?
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What is the primary mechanism by which oxygen is carried in the blood?
What is the primary mechanism by which oxygen is carried in the blood?
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What is the primary function of ATP in cells?
What is the primary function of ATP in cells?
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What is the relationship between ultraviolet radiation and melanin production?
What is the relationship between ultraviolet radiation and melanin production?
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What is the functional unit of the muscle?
What is the functional unit of the muscle?
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What is the primary function of collagen in bones?
What is the primary function of collagen in bones?
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What is the role of DNA in protein synthesis?
What is the role of DNA in protein synthesis?
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What is the primary function of the skin?
What is the primary function of the skin?
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What is the primary difference between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?
What is the primary difference between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?
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What is the term for the process by which a cell's membrane potential becomes more positive?
What is the term for the process by which a cell's membrane potential becomes more positive?
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What is the primary function of hormones in the body?
What is the primary function of hormones in the body?
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What is the primary difference between the nervous system and the endocrine system?
What is the primary difference between the nervous system and the endocrine system?
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What is the term for the movement of substances from the bloodstream into the tissues?
What is the term for the movement of substances from the bloodstream into the tissues?
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What is the term for the process by which the diaphragm changes volume and pressure to cause inhalation or exhalation?
What is the term for the process by which the diaphragm changes volume and pressure to cause inhalation or exhalation?
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What is the role of melanocytes in the skin?
What is the role of melanocytes in the skin?
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What is the primary function of ATP in cells?
What is the primary function of ATP in cells?
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What is the relationship between collagen and calcium phosphate in bone hardness and tensile strength?
What is the relationship between collagen and calcium phosphate in bone hardness and tensile strength?
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What is the difference between CNS and PNS?
What is the difference between CNS and PNS?
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What are the 4 major biomolecules?
What are the 4 major biomolecules?
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What is the relationship between joints and physical forces?
What is the relationship between joints and physical forces?
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What is the main difference between the nervous and endocrine systems?
What is the main difference between the nervous and endocrine systems?
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What is the process called that produces all formed elements of blood?
What is the process called that produces all formed elements of blood?
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What is the term for the path by which oxygen reaches the heart muscle?
What is the term for the path by which oxygen reaches the heart muscle?
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What is the term for the swelling of tissues due to excess fluid?
What is the term for the swelling of tissues due to excess fluid?
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What is the term for the circuit that supplies oxygenated blood to the entire body?
What is the term for the circuit that supplies oxygenated blood to the entire body?
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What organ filters pathogens from the blood?
What organ filters pathogens from the blood?
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What is the primary mechanism by which oxygen is carried in the blood?
What is the primary mechanism by which oxygen is carried in the blood?
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What is the process by which the diaphragm changes volume and pressure to cause inhalation or exhalation?
What is the process by which the diaphragm changes volume and pressure to cause inhalation or exhalation?
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What is the term for the process by which the body filters waste and excess fluids from the blood?
What is the term for the process by which the body filters waste and excess fluids from the blood?
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What is the term for the movement of oxygen from the lungs into the blood and carbon dioxide from the blood into the lungs?
What is the term for the movement of oxygen from the lungs into the blood and carbon dioxide from the blood into the lungs?
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What is the term for the process by which the body breaks down food into smaller molecules?
What is the term for the process by which the body breaks down food into smaller molecules?
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What is the term for the structure that attempts implantation in the female reproductive system?
What is the term for the structure that attempts implantation in the female reproductive system?
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Study Notes
Anatomy and Physiology
- Anatomy refers to the study of the structure and organization of living things.
- Physiology refers to the study of the functions and processes that occur within living things.
Feedback Mechanisms
- Positive feedback: amplifies a response, leading to a rapid change in the system.
- Negative feedback: reverses a response, leading to a return to homeostasis.
- Most common type of feedback is negative feedback.
Anatomical Position
- Standard reference position: feet shoulder-width apart, arms at sides, palms facing forward, and eyes facing forward.
Biomolecules
- Four major biomolecules: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
- Hydrophilic biomolecules: capable of dissolving in water, polar, and charged.
- Hydrophobic biomolecules: insoluble in water, non-polar, and uncharged.
Protein Structure and Denaturation
- Protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
- Denaturation: loss of protein structure and function due to changes in temperature, pH, or other external factors.
ATP in Cells
- ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the primary energy currency of cells.
- ATP is used to power cellular processes such as muscle contraction, protein synthesis, and transport of molecules across cell membranes.
DNA and Protein Synthesis
- DNA contains the genetic instructions for protein synthesis.
- Flow of information: DNA → RNA → protein.
- Purpose of DNA: to store genetic information and transmit it to the next generation.
Cells, Tissues, and Organs
- Cells: basic structural and functional units of life.
- Tissues: groups of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function.
- Organs: structures composed of two or more types of tissues that work together to perform a specific function.
Skin Functions
- Functions: protection, regulation of body temperature, and sensation.
- Melanocytes: produce melanin, which provides skin pigmentation.
- Keratinocytes: produce keratin, which provides strength and structure to skin.
Bone Structure and Function
- Functions: support, protection, and movement.
- Red and yellow marrow: types of bone marrow that produce blood cells and store energy.
- Collagen and calcium phosphate: provide bone strength and hardness.
Muscle Tissue
- Types: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle.
- Functional unit: sarcomere, composed of actin and myosin filaments.
- Muscle growth and strengthening: through hypertrophy and increased protein synthesis.
Nervous System
- CNS (Central Nervous System): brain and spinal cord.
- PNS (Peripheral Nervous System): nerves that connect CNS to the rest of the body.
- Functions: sensation, integration, and response.
Hormones
- Definition: chemical messengers that stimulate or inhibit cellular responses.
- Target cell: responds to a hormone.
- Receptor: binds to a hormone, triggering a cellular response.
Blood and Blood Formed Elements
- Functions: transportation, regulation, and protection.
- Formed elements: RBCs (red blood cells), WBCs (white blood cells), and platelets.
- Hemopoiesis: process of producing formed elements, occurs in the bone marrow.
Inflammation
- Response to tissue injury or infection.
- Functions: protection, repair, and defense.
Circulatory System
- Pulmonary circuit: heart → lungs → heart.
- Systemic circuit: heart → rest of the body → heart.
- Heart muscle oxygenation: through coronary circulation.
Blood Pressure and Circulation
- Hydrostatic pressure: force exerted by blood on vessel walls.
- Osmotic pressure: force exerted by solutes in blood.
- Edema: excessive fluid accumulation in tissues, caused by high blood pressure.
Immune System
- Organ that filters pathogens from the blood: spleen.
- Organ that filters the lymph: lymph nodes.
- Activated effector B cells: produce antibodies.
- Activated effector killer T cells: use the perforin-granzyme pathway to kill infected cells.
- Activated effector helper T cells: assist in immune responses.
Respiratory System
- Diaphragm: muscle that changes volume and pressure to cause inhalation or exhalation.
- External respiration: gas exchange between lungs and atmosphere.
- Internal respiration: gas exchange between cells and blood.
Oxygen Transport
- O2 carried in the blood: bound to hemoglobin in RBCs (oxygenation) and dissolved in plasma (oxyhemoglobin).
- Most common method of O2 transport: bound to hemoglobin in RBCs.
Anatomy and Physiology Basics
- Anatomy is the study of the structure and organization of living organisms, while physiology is the study of the functions and processes of living organisms.
Feedback Loops
- Positive feedback loops amplify a response, often leading to unstable situations, while negative feedback loops reduce a response, maintaining homeostasis.
- Examples: positive - childbirth, lactation; negative - thermoregulation, blood sugar control.
- Negative feedback loops are more common.
Anatomical Position
- The anatomical position refers to the standardized position of the human body, where the body is standing upright, feet shoulder-width apart, and arms at the sides.
Biomolecules
- The 4 major biomolecules are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
- Hydrophilic biomolecules (carbohydrates, nucleic acids) dissolve in water, while hydrophobic biomolecules (proteins, lipids) repel water.
Protein Structure and Denaturation
- Protein structure consists of primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures.
- Denaturation occurs when the protein structure is disrupted, often due to changes in temperature, pH, or chemical environments.
ATP and Energy
- ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the primary energy currency of cells, providing energy for cellular processes.
DNA and Protein Synthesis
- DNA contains genetic information, which is transcribed into RNA and translated into proteins.
- The flow of information is DNA → RNA → protein.
Cells, Tissues, and Organs
- Cells are the basic units of life, forming tissues, which form organs, which form organ systems.
- Tissues include epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.
Skin and Its Functions
- The skin provides protection, regulates body temperature, and aids in sensation and vitamin D production.
- Melanocytes produce melanin, while keratinocytes produce keratin.
Bones and Joints
- The 4 main tissue types in the human body are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.
- Red marrow produces blood cells, while yellow marrow stores energy in the form of fat.
- Collagen provides tensile strength, while calcium phosphate provides hardness to bones.
- Physical forces and calcium homeostasis influence bone remodeling.
Muscle Tissue
- The 3 types of muscle tissue are skeletal (voluntary), smooth (involuntary), and cardiac (involuntary).
- Skeletal muscle cells have a functional unit called the sarcomere, composed of actin and myosin filaments.
- Muscles grow and strengthen through hypertrophy and hyperplasia.
Nervous System
- The central nervous system (CNS) integrates and processes information, while the peripheral nervous system (PNS) transmits information to and from the CNS.
- The PNS consists of sensory and motor neurons.
Hormones and Endocrine System
- Hormones are chemical messengers that stimulate specific cells or organs.
- The endocrine system regulates growth, development, and metabolism, with slower response times than the nervous system.
Blood and Hemopoiesis
- Blood consists of formed elements (RBCs, WBCs, platelets) and plasma.
- Hemopoiesis occurs in the bone marrow, producing all formed elements.
Inflammation and Immune Response
- Inflammation is a response to injury or infection, involving increased blood flow, swelling, and immune cell activation.
- Activation of B cells and T cells leads to the production of antibodies and immune responses.
Heart and Circulation
- The heart pumps blood through the pulmonary and systemic circuits.
- The coronary circulation provides oxygenated blood to the heart muscle.
Respiration and Gas Exchange
- Diaphragmatic contractions and relaxations change lung volume and pressure, facilitating inhalation and exhalation.
- External respiration occurs in the lungs, while internal respiration occurs in cells.
Digestion and Nutrition
- The 6 processes of digestion are ingestion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, absorption, assimilation, and egestion.
- Each process occurs in specific locations, such as the mouth, stomach, or small intestine.
Nervous and Endocrine Systems
- Nervous system: fast, specific target, electrical signals
- Endocrine system: slow, non-specific target, hormonal signals
Blood and Blood Elements
- 3 formed elements: RBCs (erythrocytes), WBCs (leukocytes), platelets (thrombocytes)
- Hemopoiesis: production of formed elements in the blood, occurs in bone marrow
Inflammation and Blood Circulation
- Inflammation: response to injury or infection, function is to protect and repair
- Pulmonary circuit: circulation of blood between heart and lungs
- Systemic circuit: circulation of blood between heart and rest of body
- Coronary circulation: blood supply to heart muscle, related to myocardial infarction
Heart Function and Blood Pressure
- Systole: contraction of heart muscle, heart beats
- Diastole: relaxation of heart muscle, heart rests
- Contraction/relaxation, depolarization/repolarization related to heart function
- High blood pressure can cause edema due to increased hydrostatic pressure
Blood Vessels and Blood Pressure
- Arteries: thick walls, high pressure, carry oxygenated blood away from heart
- Veins: thin walls, low pressure, carry deoxygenated blood towards heart
- Hydrostatic pressure: blood pressure in capillaries, pushes fluid out
- Osmotic pressure: pulls fluid back into capillaries
- Edema: excessive fluid in tissues, caused by high blood pressure
Immune System
- Spleen: filters pathogens from blood
- Lymph nodes: filter lymph
- Activated effector B cells: produce antibodies
- Activated effector killer T cells: use perforin-granzyme pathway to kill infected cells
- Activated effector helper T cells: assist in immune response
- Passive immunity: temporary, from another source (e.g. vaccination, antibodies)
- Active immunity: long-term, from immune response (e.g. getting sick, breast-feeding antibodies)
Respiration
- Diaphragm: changes volume and pressure to cause inhalation or exhalation
- External respiration: gas exchange between lungs and atmosphere
- Internal respiration: gas exchange between cells and blood
- O2 carried in blood: bound to hemoglobin (most common), dissolved in plasma
- Oxygen's solubility: low, making binding to hemoglobin necessary
Digestion
- 6 processes of digestion: ingestion, peristalsis, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, absorption, elimination
- Peristalsis: wave-like muscle contractions, mixes food with digestive enzymes
- Segmentation: localized muscle contractions, mixes food with digestive enzymes
- Major digestive organs: mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, liver, pancreas, large intestine
- Functions: ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination
Urinary System
- Glomerular filtration: filtration of blood in nephron, occurs in Bowman's capsule
- Overhydration: dilute urine, high volume, pale yellow color
- Dehydration: concentrated urine, low volume, dark yellow color
- Frequency of UTIs and kidney stones related to length of urethra in males vs females
Reproductive System
- Gamete: reproductive cell, male (sperm) and female (egg)
- Gonad: reproductive organ, male (testes) and female (ovaries)
- Spermatogenesis: production of sperm in testes, occurs throughout life
- Oogenesis: production of eggs in ovaries, occurs in embryonic development
- Blastocyst: structure that attempts implantation in uterus
- Implantation delayed due to growth and travel time of blastocyst
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Description
Test your knowledge of biology fundamentals, including anatomy, physiology, biomolecules, and DNA protein synthesis. Covers chapters 1-3 of a biology course.
