Biology Chapter 1-3 Quiz

Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy refers to the study of the structure and organization of living things.
• Physiology refers to the study of the functions and processes that occur within living things.

Feedback Mechanisms

• Positive feedback: amplifies a response, leading to a rapid change in the system.
• Negative feedback: reverses a response, leading to a return to homeostasis.
• Most common type of feedback is negative feedback.

Anatomical Position

• Standard reference position: feet shoulder-width apart, arms at sides, palms facing forward, and eyes facing forward.

Biomolecules

• Four major biomolecules: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
• Hydrophilic biomolecules: capable of dissolving in water, polar, and charged.
• Hydrophobic biomolecules: insoluble in water, non-polar, and uncharged.

Protein Structure and Denaturation

• Protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
• Denaturation: loss of protein structure and function due to changes in temperature, pH, or other external factors.

ATP in Cells

• ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the primary energy currency of cells.
• ATP is used to power cellular processes such as muscle contraction, protein synthesis, and transport of molecules across cell membranes.

DNA and Protein Synthesis

• DNA contains the genetic instructions for protein synthesis.
• Flow of information: DNA → RNA → protein.
• Purpose of DNA: to store genetic information and transmit it to the next generation.

Cells, Tissues, and Organs

• Cells: basic structural and functional units of life.
• Tissues: groups of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function.
• Organs: structures composed of two or more types of tissues that work together to perform a specific function.

Skin Functions

• Functions: protection, regulation of body temperature, and sensation.
• Melanocytes: produce melanin, which provides skin pigmentation.
• Keratinocytes: produce keratin, which provides strength and structure to skin.

Bone Structure and Function

• Functions: support, protection, and movement.
• Red and yellow marrow: types of bone marrow that produce blood cells and store energy.
• Collagen and calcium phosphate: provide bone strength and hardness.

Muscle Tissue

• Types: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle.
• Functional unit: sarcomere, composed of actin and myosin filaments.
• Muscle growth and strengthening: through hypertrophy and increased protein synthesis.

Nervous System

• CNS (Central Nervous System): brain and spinal cord.
• PNS (Peripheral Nervous System): nerves that connect CNS to the rest of the body.
• Functions: sensation, integration, and response.

Hormones

• Definition: chemical messengers that stimulate or inhibit cellular responses.
• Target cell: responds to a hormone.
• Receptor: binds to a hormone, triggering a cellular response.

Blood and Blood Formed Elements

• Functions: transportation, regulation, and protection.
• Formed elements: RBCs (red blood cells), WBCs (white blood cells), and platelets.
• Hemopoiesis: process of producing formed elements, occurs in the bone marrow.

Inflammation

• Response to tissue injury or infection.
• Functions: protection, repair, and defense.

Circulatory System

• Pulmonary circuit: heart → lungs → heart.
• Systemic circuit: heart → rest of the body → heart.
• Heart muscle oxygenation: through coronary circulation.

Blood Pressure and Circulation

• Hydrostatic pressure: force exerted by blood on vessel walls.
• Osmotic pressure: force exerted by solutes in blood.
• Edema: excessive fluid accumulation in tissues, caused by high blood pressure.

Immune System

• Organ that filters pathogens from the blood: spleen.
• Organ that filters the lymph: lymph nodes.
• Activated effector B cells: produce antibodies.
• Activated effector killer T cells: use the perforin-granzyme pathway to kill infected cells.
• Activated effector helper T cells: assist in immune responses.

Respiratory System

• Diaphragm: muscle that changes volume and pressure to cause inhalation or exhalation.
• External respiration: gas exchange between lungs and atmosphere.
• Internal respiration: gas exchange between cells and blood.

Oxygen Transport

• O2 carried in the blood: bound to hemoglobin in RBCs (oxygenation) and dissolved in plasma (oxyhemoglobin).
• Most common method of O2 transport: bound to hemoglobin in RBCs.

Anatomy and Physiology Basics

• Anatomy is the study of the structure and organization of living organisms, while physiology is the study of the functions and processes of living organisms.

Feedback Loops

• Positive feedback loops amplify a response, often leading to unstable situations, while negative feedback loops reduce a response, maintaining homeostasis.
• Examples: positive - childbirth, lactation; negative - thermoregulation, blood sugar control.
• Negative feedback loops are more common.

Anatomical Position

• The anatomical position refers to the standardized position of the human body, where the body is standing upright, feet shoulder-width apart, and arms at the sides.

Biomolecules

• The 4 major biomolecules are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
• Hydrophilic biomolecules (carbohydrates, nucleic acids) dissolve in water, while hydrophobic biomolecules (proteins, lipids) repel water.

Protein Structure and Denaturation

• Protein structure consists of primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures.
• Denaturation occurs when the protein structure is disrupted, often due to changes in temperature, pH, or chemical environments.

ATP and Energy

• ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the primary energy currency of cells, providing energy for cellular processes.

DNA and Protein Synthesis

• DNA contains genetic information, which is transcribed into RNA and translated into proteins.
• The flow of information is DNA → RNA → protein.

Cells, Tissues, and Organs

• Cells are the basic units of life, forming tissues, which form organs, which form organ systems.
• Tissues include epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.

Skin and Its Functions

• The skin provides protection, regulates body temperature, and aids in sensation and vitamin D production.
• Melanocytes produce melanin, while keratinocytes produce keratin.

Bones and Joints

• The 4 main tissue types in the human body are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.
• Red marrow produces blood cells, while yellow marrow stores energy in the form of fat.
• Collagen provides tensile strength, while calcium phosphate provides hardness to bones.
• Physical forces and calcium homeostasis influence bone remodeling.

Muscle Tissue

• The 3 types of muscle tissue are skeletal (voluntary), smooth (involuntary), and cardiac (involuntary).
• Skeletal muscle cells have a functional unit called the sarcomere, composed of actin and myosin filaments.
• Muscles grow and strengthen through hypertrophy and hyperplasia.

Nervous System

• The central nervous system (CNS) integrates and processes information, while the peripheral nervous system (PNS) transmits information to and from the CNS.
• The PNS consists of sensory and motor neurons.

Hormones and Endocrine System

• Hormones are chemical messengers that stimulate specific cells or organs.
• The endocrine system regulates growth, development, and metabolism, with slower response times than the nervous system.

Blood and Hemopoiesis

• Blood consists of formed elements (RBCs, WBCs, platelets) and plasma.
• Hemopoiesis occurs in the bone marrow, producing all formed elements.

Inflammation and Immune Response

• Inflammation is a response to injury or infection, involving increased blood flow, swelling, and immune cell activation.
• Activation of B cells and T cells leads to the production of antibodies and immune responses.

Heart and Circulation

• The heart pumps blood through the pulmonary and systemic circuits.
• The coronary circulation provides oxygenated blood to the heart muscle.

Respiration and Gas Exchange

• Diaphragmatic contractions and relaxations change lung volume and pressure, facilitating inhalation and exhalation.
• External respiration occurs in the lungs, while internal respiration occurs in cells.

Digestion and Nutrition

• The 6 processes of digestion are ingestion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, absorption, assimilation, and egestion.
• Each process occurs in specific locations, such as the mouth, stomach, or small intestine.

Nervous and Endocrine Systems

• Nervous system: fast, specific target, electrical signals
• Endocrine system: slow, non-specific target, hormonal signals

Blood and Blood Elements

• 3 formed elements: RBCs (erythrocytes), WBCs (leukocytes), platelets (thrombocytes)
• Hemopoiesis: production of formed elements in the blood, occurs in bone marrow

Inflammation and Blood Circulation

• Inflammation: response to injury or infection, function is to protect and repair
• Pulmonary circuit: circulation of blood between heart and lungs
• Systemic circuit: circulation of blood between heart and rest of body
• Coronary circulation: blood supply to heart muscle, related to myocardial infarction

Heart Function and Blood Pressure

• Systole: contraction of heart muscle, heart beats
• Diastole: relaxation of heart muscle, heart rests
• Contraction/relaxation, depolarization/repolarization related to heart function
• High blood pressure can cause edema due to increased hydrostatic pressure

Blood Vessels and Blood Pressure

• Arteries: thick walls, high pressure, carry oxygenated blood away from heart
• Veins: thin walls, low pressure, carry deoxygenated blood towards heart
• Hydrostatic pressure: blood pressure in capillaries, pushes fluid out
• Osmotic pressure: pulls fluid back into capillaries
• Edema: excessive fluid in tissues, caused by high blood pressure

Immune System

• Spleen: filters pathogens from blood
• Lymph nodes: filter lymph
• Activated effector B cells: produce antibodies
• Activated effector killer T cells: use perforin-granzyme pathway to kill infected cells
• Activated effector helper T cells: assist in immune response
• Passive immunity: temporary, from another source (e.g. vaccination, antibodies)
• Active immunity: long-term, from immune response (e.g. getting sick, breast-feeding antibodies)

Respiration

• Diaphragm: changes volume and pressure to cause inhalation or exhalation
• External respiration: gas exchange between lungs and atmosphere
• Internal respiration: gas exchange between cells and blood
• O2 carried in blood: bound to hemoglobin (most common), dissolved in plasma
• Oxygen's solubility: low, making binding to hemoglobin necessary

Digestion

• 6 processes of digestion: ingestion, peristalsis, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, absorption, elimination
• Peristalsis: wave-like muscle contractions, mixes food with digestive enzymes
• Segmentation: localized muscle contractions, mixes food with digestive enzymes
• Major digestive organs: mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, liver, pancreas, large intestine
• Functions: ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination

Urinary System

• Glomerular filtration: filtration of blood in nephron, occurs in Bowman's capsule
• Overhydration: dilute urine, high volume, pale yellow color
• Dehydration: concentrated urine, low volume, dark yellow color
• Frequency of UTIs and kidney stones related to length of urethra in males vs females

Reproductive System

• Gamete: reproductive cell, male (sperm) and female (egg)
• Gonad: reproductive organ, male (testes) and female (ovaries)
• Spermatogenesis: production of sperm in testes, occurs throughout life
• Oogenesis: production of eggs in ovaries, occurs in embryonic development
• Blastocyst: structure that attempts implantation in uterus
• Implantation delayed due to growth and travel time of blastocyst