Biology: Cells and Genetics

Biology

Cells and Cellular Transport

• Cell membrane: semi-permeable, allows certain substances to pass through
• Cell wall: provides structure and support
• Cellular transport: passive (diffusion, osmosis) and active (requiring energy)

Genetics

• DNA: double helix structure, carries genetic information
• Chromosomes: thread-like structures made up of DNA and proteins
• Genes: segments of DNA that code for specific traits
• Inheritance: passing of traits from parents to offspring

Ecology

• Ecosystem: community of living and non-living things interacting in an environment
• Biodiversity: variety of species within an ecosystem
• Food chain: sequence of organisms that eat other organisms
• Food web: network of interconnected food chains

Chemistry

Atomic Structure

• Atom: smallest unit of matter, composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons
• Protons: positive charge, found in nucleus
• Neutrons: no charge, found in nucleus
• Electrons: negative charge, found in energy levels

Chemical Bonding

• Chemical bond: attractive force between atoms
• Types of bonds: ionic, covalent, and metallic
• Ionic bonds: formed between oppositely charged ions
• Covalent bonds: formed between shared electrons

Chemical Reactions

• Chemical reaction: process where substances change into new substances
• Reactants: substances that undergo change
• Products: substances formed during a reaction
• Chemical equations: symbolic representation of a reaction

Physics

Motion

• Kinematics: study of motion without considering forces
• Distance: total amount of ground covered
• Displacement: shortest distance from initial to final position
• Velocity: rate of change of displacement
• Acceleration: rate of change of velocity

Forces

• Force: push or pull that causes an object to change motion
• Types of forces: gravity, friction, normal force
• Newton's First Law: an object at rest will remain at rest, and an object in motion will continue to move with a constant velocity, unless acted upon by an external force

Energy

• Energy: ability to do work
• Types of energy: kinetic, potential, thermal, electrical
• Law of Conservation of Energy: energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another

Biology

Cells and Cellular Transport

• Cell membrane is semi-permeable, allowing certain substances to pass through while maintaining internal environment.
• Cell wall provides structure and support, and is found in plant cells, bacteria, and some fungi.
• Cellular transport occurs through passive (diffusion, osmosis) and active (requiring energy) mechanisms.

Genetics

• DNA has a double helix structure, carrying genetic information in the form of nucleotide base pairs.
• Chromosomes are thread-like structures composed of DNA and proteins, found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
• Genes are segments of DNA that code for specific traits, with varying expressions and interactions.
• Inheritance occurs through the passing of traits from parents to offspring, influenced by genetic and environmental factors.

Ecology

• Ecosystems consist of a community of living and non-living components interacting in an environment.
• Biodiversity is the variety of species within an ecosystem, influencing ecosystem health and resilience.
• Food chains represent a sequence of organisms that eat other organisms, with energy transferred from one trophic level to the next.
• Food webs are complex networks of interconnected food chains, demonstrating energy flow and nutrient cycling.

Chemistry

Atomic Structure

• Atoms are the smallest units of matter, composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
• Protons possess a positive charge, found in the nucleus, determining the element's identity.
• Neutrons have no charge, found in the nucleus, contributing to the atom's mass.
• Electrons have a negative charge, found in energy levels, participating in chemical bonding.

Chemical Bonding

• Chemical bonds are attractive forces between atoms, forming molecules.
• Ionic bonds form between oppositely charged ions, resulting in a stable compound.
• Covalent bonds form between shared electrons, characteristic of molecular compounds.
• Metallic bonds involve the delocalization of electrons, typical of metallic elements.

Chemical Reactions

• Chemical reactions involve the transformation of substances into new substances.
• Reactants are the substances that undergo change, often driven by energy input.
• Products are the resulting substances formed during a reaction, influenced by reactant stoichiometry.
• Chemical equations symbolically represent a reaction, illustrating reactant and product quantities.

Physics

Motion

• Kinematics is the study of motion without considering forces, describing an object's position, velocity, and acceleration.
• Distance is the total amount of ground covered by an object, while displacement is the shortest distance from initial to final position.
• Velocity is the rate of change of displacement, with acceleration being the rate of change of velocity.
• Motion can be described using graphs, equations, and vectors.

Forces

• Forces are pushes or pulls that cause an object to change motion, with units of Newtons.
• Gravity is a force that attracts objects with mass, influencing their motion.
• Friction is a force that opposes motion, resulting from surface interactions.
• Normal force is a force exerted by a surface on an object, often equal to the weight of the object.

Energy

• Energy is the ability to do work, existing in various forms such as kinetic, potential, thermal, and electrical.
• The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another.
• Energy transformations occur through various mechanisms, such as heat transfer, work, and electromagnetic radiation.