Biology Basics Quiz

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Questions and Answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a living organism?

Potential for beneficial or harmful genetic mutations.

Capacity to reproduce.

Inability to change or mutate its DNA. (correct)

Ability to acquire energy from the environment.

The study of the functions of living organisms is known as:

Physiology. (correct)

Microbiology.

Anatomy.

Ecology.

Which of these is the most inclusive level of biological organization?

Population.

Biosphere. (correct)

Community.

Ecosystem.

What are the elements that form the majority of living mass in organisms?

Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Calcium and Phosphorus. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Anatomy, as a subdivision of biology, primarily explores which aspect of life?

Structures of organisms. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What happens to organisms with harmful mutations?

They may die. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of how biology improves the world?

Discovering new treatment options for diseases. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What level of organization is immediately below tissues?

Cells. (C) Signup and view all the answers

During which phase of the cell cycle does DNA replication occur?

Synthesis phase (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the G1 checkpoint in the cell cycle?

To ensure that the cell is ready for DNA synthesis (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the nucleolus?

Producing ribosomal RNA (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the state of a cell in the G0 phase?

Having left the cell cycle and has stopped dividing (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is responsible for the synthesis of proteins in the cell?

Ribosomes (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the key event that occurs during the M phase of the cell cycle?

Nuclear division resulting in two daughter cells (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of mitochondria?

Energy production through ATP (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the metaphase checkpoint during mitosis?

To ensure proper chromosome alignment before cell division (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which type of plastid is responsible for the green color in plants?

Chloroplasts (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which phase of the cell cycle is characterized by high metabolic activity and cell growth?

Interphase (C) Signup and view all the answers

What type of plastids are found in the colored petals of flowers?

Chromoplasts (D) Signup and view all the answers

Besides the G1 and metaphase checkpoints, what other checkpoint is mentioned?

S phase checkpoint (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which plastids are involved in the storage of materials in roots and tubers?

Leucoplasts (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the G2 checkpoint in the cell cycle?

To verify that DNA replication has been completed without errors (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the membrane system found within a chloroplast?

Thylakoid (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which of these organelles contain their own circular DNA?

Mitochondria and Plastids (C) Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic cells?

Eukaryotic cells have a membrane-bound nucleus while prokaryotic do not. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of stem cells?

They have the ability to develop into almost any cell type in the body. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of these defines a tissue?

A group of similar cells performing a common function. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of these examples describes how tissues form an organ?

Epithelial, muscle and secretory tissues working together in the stomach. (D) Signup and view all the answers

How do organ systems contribute to the function of an organism?

By working in coordination to perform specific activities. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of these is an example of a unicellular organism?

An amoeba. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the cardiovascular system?

Transport of blood. (D) Signup and view all the answers

How do the cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems connect together?

Cells form tissues, which form organs, which form organ systems, which form an organism. (C) Signup and view all the answers

During Anaphase I of meiosis, what is the arrangement of chromosomes?

Homologous chromosomes move towards opposite poles, with sister chromatids remaining together. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of telophase I and cytokinesis in meiosis?

Two haploid cells, with half the number of chromosomes as the original cell. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary distinction between cytokinesis in males and females during meiosis?

In males, the cytoplasm is divided equally, while in females, it's divided unequally. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately compares mitosis and meiosis?

Mitosis produces genetically identical daughter cells where as meiosis results in genetically diverse cells. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is a major advantage of meiosis, as given in the text?

It promotes genetic variation through recombination or crossing over. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of non-disjunction of homologous chromosomes during meiosis?

Unequal distribution of chromosomes in gametes, leading to genetic disorders. (B) Signup and view all the answers

How many cell divisions occur during meiosis?

Two cell divisions, the first reducing the chromosome number and the second dividing the sister chromatids. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What happens when errors occur in meiosis?

Errors may lead to disorders. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which blotting technique is used to detect DNA sequences in a DNA sample?

Southern Blotting (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of blotting techniques?

Identifying specific molecules within a mixture (A) Signup and view all the answers

What type of molecule is targeted by Western Blotting?

Proteins (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which blotting technique is used to identify post-translational protein modifications?

Eastern Blotting (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which statement BEST describes the role of capillary action in blotting?

Capillary action drives the transfer of molecules to the membrane. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the main advantage of electroblotting over traditional blotting?

Electroblotting is more efficient for transferring molecules from polyacrylamide gels. (B) Signup and view all the answers

How are specific sequences detected in a membrane during blotting?

Hybridizing with labeled nucleic acid probes. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between Southern and Northern blotting?

Southern blotting analyzes DNA, while Northern blotting analyzes RNA. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Haalim Study

This is a study about Haalim.
No further information is available.

Topic No 01: What is Life?

Life forms acquire energy from the environment
Life forms reproduce
Life forms mutate/change

Topic No 02: Levels of Organization in Life

Atoms are the smallest component of an element
Atoms form bioelements, which make up living organisms, mostly oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus
Bioelements make up 99% of the mass of living things
10 additional elements make up 1% of living matter
Atoms bond together to form molecules
Molecules form organelles
Organelles form cells; the basic unit of life
Prokaryotic cells don't have a defined nucleus. Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus.

Topic No 03: Cells

Cells are the basic unit of life, specialized in structure and function.
There are different types of cells.
Prokaryotic cells do not contain a membrane-bound nucleus
Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus that's enclosed in a membrane

Topic No 04: Stem Cells

Undifferentiated cells in most genes are switched on.
These cells have the potential to create all body cells.
Useful for creating organs for humans.
Found in adult organisms or embryos.

Topic No 05: Tissues

Groups of similar cells performing the same functions.
Examples (epithelial tissues that form skin, etc).

Topic No 06: Organs and Organ Systems

Tissues form units called organs.
Organs work together to form organ systems.
Each organ and system has a specific purpose.

Topic No 07: Populations, Communities, and Ecosystems

Organisms of a single species living in an area at a specific time are considered a population.
A community contains of different populations inhabiting a region simultaneously.
An ecosystem is a particular area in which populations and their physical environment interact.

Topic No 08: Biosphere

The part of Earth inhabited by living organisms is the biosphere.
It includes all ecosystems.

Topic No 09: Cells: Cell Theory

All living things are comprised of one or more cells.
Cells are the fundamental units of life.
Cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Topic No 10: Cell Components

Cell membrane surrounds the cell externally.
Cell wall is present in some organisms.
Cytoplasm is a semi-transparent substance inside the cell.
Cytoskeleton is a cell framework.
Organelles (nucleus, ribosomes, etc) are sub-cellular components with specific functionalities
Mitochondria are energy producers.

Topic No 11: Cell Organelles (continued)

Nucleus contains the genetic material.
Ribosomes are involved in protein synthesis.
Other organelles, such as mitochondria, ER, and Golgi apparatus, carry out specialized functions.

Topic No 12: Membrane Structure and Function

Cell membranes are made of a lipid bilayer with proteins embedded within it.
Cell membranes separate the cell's internal environment from external environments.
Cell membranes regulate what enters and leaves the cell.

Topic No 13: Cell Walls

Prokaryotes, fungi and plants have cell walls, which give shape, strength and support.
Prokaryotic cell walls are composed of peptidoglycan
Plant cell walls are composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin.
Fungal cell walls are made up of chitin.

Topic No 14: Cytoplasm

Cytoplasm is a substance between cell membrane and nucleus. It comprises water, proteins, and inorganic molecules.

Topic No 15: Cytoskeleton

Cytoskeleton is a network of filaments and tubules in the cytoplasm.
Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules are different cytoskeletal components and perform diverse functions.
Microfilaments help with cell and organelle movement.
Intermediate filaments maintain cell structure and protect the nucleus.
Microtubules assist in organelle movement and cell division.

Topic No 16: Cell Division – Mitosis

Mitosis is a type of cell division that produces two daughter cells that are genetically identical.
Mitosis is vital for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction in organisms

Topic No 17: Mitosis - Stages

Cell division involves several stages like prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.
Different in animal and plant cells.

Topic No 18: Mitosis- Importance

Mitosis is important for growth and repair.
Also for asexual reproduction in many organisms

Topic No 19: Cell Division- Meiosis

Meiosis is a cell division that produces four daughter cells that are genetically different from each other and the parent cell
Occurs in germ cells to create gametes (sex cells)

Topic No 20: Meiosis- Stages

Meiosis has two rounds of division. Meiosis I and Meiosis II
Meiosis I is called the reduction division; the chromosomes halved
Meiosis II is essentially identical to the mitosis process, producing four haploid cells
Cytokineses follows each of these divisions

Topic No 21 : Meiosis- Events

Karyokinesis (the nuclear division) divided into four phases
Cytokinesis (cell division)

Topic No 22: Meiosis- Importance

The main advantage of meiosis is genetic variation which is created during recombination.
Errors can lead to serious disorders.

Topic No 23: Twins

Different types of twins.
Fraternal twins are produced by two separate eggs, genetically different
Identical twins are produced from one egg, genetically identical

Topic No 24: Molecular Biology: Contribution of Molecular Biology

The human genome sequence was revealed in 2003.
Molecular biology has revolutionized fields like health and agriculture.

Topic No 25: Chromatin

Chromatin is the genetic material in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells
Chromatin condenses during cell division into chromosomes.

Topic No 26: Gene Action

Genes express themselves by making proteins.
DNA undergoes transcription producing mRNA.
mRNA goes on to undergo translation producing proteins

Topic No 27: Replication and Transcription

DNA replicates to create copies of itself before cell division
Transcription converts DNA into mRNA
Steps involve RNA polymerase attaching to promoter region, unwinding DNA, making mRNA complement DNA

Topic No 28: Translation

Translation converts mRNA into proteins
This process takes place in ribosomes and involves tRNAs matching codons to anticodons.

Topic No 29: Nucleotides

Nucleic acids components are composed of nucleotides
DNA and RNA are examples of polymeric compounds

Topic No 30: Chemical Composition of DNA

DNA consists of deoxyribose sugar, phosphate groups, and nitrogenous bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine).

Topic No 31: Chemical Composition of RNA

RNA consists of ribose sugar, phosphate groups, and nitrogenous bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil).

Topic No 32: Chemical Composition of Proteins

Proteins are polymers of amino acids.
Amino acids linked via peptide bonds
Proteins, may be small to extremely large.

Topic No 33: Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are sugar polymers in the forms of monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.

Topic No 34: Carbohydrates Glycosidic Linkages

Glycosidic linkages are covalent bonds binding carbohydrates together.
Configurations of anomeric carbon distinguish isomeric forms

Topic No 35: Lipids

Lipids are non-polar molecules, typically oily or greasy.
Examples are waxes, steroids and fatty acids
Important components of cell membranes

Topic No 36: Lipids: Fatty Acids

Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated
Saturated fats have single bonds between carbons, unsaturated have double bonds
Saturated fats tend to be solid at room temperature, while unsaturated fats are liquid

Topic No 37: Study of Omics

Genomics, proteomics and metabolomics are omics-based approaches to understand living systems.
Genomics: all the genes
Proteomics: all the proteins
Metabolomics: all the metabolites
Each omics field can be used to determine the effects of environment on organisms.

Topic No 38: Genome, Proteome and Metabolome

Genome: complete DNA in a cell.
Proteome: complete proteins in a cell
Metabolome: complete metabolites in a cell

Topic No 39: Genome Informatics

Genome sequencing provides the sequence of all genes of an organism
Genomics studies the genes, and their interactions with each other and the environment
Genome informatics uses computational techniques to analyze genomic data

Topic No 40: Prokaryotic Genome

Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus.
Prokaryotic genomes are typically smaller than eukaryotic genomes.
Bacterial genomes have a higher coding density.

Topic No 41: Eukaryotic Genome

Eukaryotic genomes are larger and more complex than prokaryotic genomes.
Eukaryotic genomes typically have non-coding sequences (introns)
Eukaryotic genomes include repetitive sequences

Topic No 42: Viral Genomes

Viruses can have either DNA or RNA genomes.
Viral genomes are small compared to cellular genomes.
Viral genomes are often circular or linear

Topic No 43: Bacterial Genomes

Bacteria have small genomes that are highly packed.
Gene density varies a lot, between bacterial species.

Topic No 44: Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

PCR is used for DNA amplification.
PCR consists of three major steps: denaturation, annealing, and extension.
PCR has different types like multiplex PCR, nested PCR, and reverse-transcription PCR

Topic No 45: Steps of PCR

PCR procedure has several steps: initial denaturation, annealing and extension.
The cycles are repeated for exponential amplification of the target DNA.

Topic No 46: Types of PCR

Multiplex PCR amplifies several sequences simultaneously.
Nested PCR increases the sensitivity.
RT-PCR is for amplifying RNA sequences.

Topic No 47: Semi-Quantitative PCR

Semi-quantitative PCR is used to study gene expression.
The relative amount of DNA is determined through electrophoresis.

Topic No 48: PCR Applications and Medical Uses

PCR has various medical applications, including detection of viral, bacterial pathogens or genes of diseases.
PCR aids in diagnosis, genetic screening, and surveillance efforts.

Topic No 49: Southern Blotting

Southern blotting is used in molecular biology to detect specific DNA sequences
The process involves several steps such as gel electrophoresis, denaturation, transferring to membrane, hybridization, and detection

Topic No 50: Northern Blotting

Northern blotting is used to locate specific RNA sequences
Similar principles apply, such as gel electrophoresis, transfer, hybridization, and detection.

Topic No 51: Northern Blot- Application

Used for gene expression study, abundance of RNA quantification.
It's used for comparing mRNA levels or monitoring specific genes

Topic No 52: Western Blotting

A technique used to detect the presence of a specific protein in a mixed sample
A method to detect and quantify proteins in a complex sample

Topic No 53: Western Blotting Procedure

Sample preparation
Gel Electrophoresis
Blotting
Blocking
Antibody probing
Detection

Topic No 54: Western Blotting (procedure)

Sample preparation and sample loading
Gel electrophoresis for protein separation
Transfer of separated proteins to a membrane
Blocking to prevent non-specific antibody binding
Antibody probing and detection with enzyme-linked secondary antibodies
Detection using appropriate substrates for the enzyme

Topic No 55: Nature of Mutations

DNA mutations can be simple or complex.
Simple mutations are single-base changes (transitions, transversions), insertions, or deletions.
Complex mutations involve larger changes in DNA sequences

Topic No 56: Introduction to Biotechnology

Biotechnology is the use of living organisms (or their parts) to create or modify products.
This includes using microbes, plant, and animal cells for manufacturing various products for various uses

Topic No 57: Biotech- Key Technology of 21st Century

Biotechnology is important in various industries and sectors like medical, agriculture
The process involves the manipulation or use of biological systems to provide solutions.

Topic No 58: Immunity

Immunity is the body's ability to resist infections, which can be divided in two categories
Innate immunity (inborn or non specific) is the first line of defense
Adaptive immunity (develop overtime and learned) involves very specific cells.

Topic No 59: Innate Immunity

Innate immunity is the body's initial defense mechanisms, active immediately upon infection.
It's nonspecific, but extremely crucial in containing or eliminating pathogens.

Topic No 60: What is Immune System?

Your immune system is a complex collection of cells, tissues, and organs.
It fights infections or abnormal cells
The immune system has several components such as skin, mucous membranes, white blood cells, and organs of the lymph system.

Topic No 61: Types of Immunity

Innate immunity is the initial defense that's in place when pathogens enters the body, acting as a general barrier.
Adaptive immunity is a specialized response that develops over time in response to encountering particular pathogens.

Topic No 62: Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system is a network of vessels, and tissues that carry lymph.
Lymph has a role to filter out waste materials from the body

Topic No 63: Role of Lymphatic System in Immunity

Within the lymphatic system, lymphocytes (T cells and B cells) encounter foreign microorganisms, and they participate in immune responses.
Lymphocytes, also called T cells and B cells, are major components of the immune system.
This system assists in the immune response, and functions in response to pathogens.

Topic No 64: Types of Vaccination

Active immunization is the process of stimulating an immune response to prepare the body for future pathogen encounters.
Passive immunization involves receiving pre-formed antibodies from another source.

Topic No 65: Novel Vaccines

DNA vaccines, which are an area of research that is looking promising, are a type of vaccine based on introducing genetic material of a specific target pathogen

Topic No 66: Nature of Viruses

Viruses are the smallest particle that infects bacteria.
Viruses can have either a DNA or RNA genome.
Viruses consist of a small genetic material and a protein coat. They depend on host for replication, transcription and translation.

Topic No 67: Unique Properties of Viruses

Viruses can only replicate inside host cells. Viruses live with host cells.
Virus lack their own energy-generating systems.
Viruses are classified according to their genome, morphology, cell tropism

Topic No 68: Virus Structure

Virus is a particle that can infect living cells.
Viruses are smaller than prokaryotes.
A virus is known as a virion. This is a simple particle that consists of a protective protein coat (capsid) and a nucleic acid genome.

Topic No 69: Why Viruses Need Host Cells

Viruses do not have their own metabolic machinery to make proteins
Viruses depend on the host cell to synthesize proteins and replicate

Topic No 70: Virus Morphology

Viruses possess diverse shapes, including helical and polyhedral structures.
The shape helps in their classification.
Some viruses such as those with complex shapes do not fit into the helical or Icosahedral category.

Topic No 71: Bacteriophages

Bacteriophages are viruses that attack bacteria.
They can follow either lytic or lysogenic cycles.

Topic No 72: Microbes

The term 'microbes' is used in place of the term 'microorganisms'
Microbes such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa are ubiquitous on earth,
They are vital in many ecological processes

Topic No 73: Classification of Microbes

A classification system aids in identifying and learning about microbes.
A system called three-domain classification is used where organisms are grouped in to three domains – Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.

Topic No 74: Introduction to Microscopy

Microscopy is a technique that magnifies very small object beyond the naked eye.
Microscopes are used by scientists to study cells, viruses, or very minute parts of cells

Topic No 75: Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution

Magnification is the ability of the lens to enlarge the specimen.
Resolution is the ability to distinguish between two closely spaced structures.
The compound microscope usually has two types of lenses: ocular (eyepiece) and objective lenses

Topic No 76: Types of Compound Microscopes

Bright field microscopy provides a bright image of the specimen against a dark background.
Dark field microscopy allows viewing unstained microbes against a dark background.
Phase contrast microscopy converts minute changes in light waves passing through a transparent specimen into variations in amplitude for contrast.
Fluorescent microscopy employs fluorescent dyes that emit light when illuminated by a specific wavelength that can be used to visualise specific components.

Topic No 77: Electron Microscopy

Electron microscopy offers high resolution and magnification, essential for studying subcellular structures.
TEM (Transmission electron microscopy): transmits electron beams through a thin section of a specimen
SEM (Scanning electron microscopy): scans the specimen on the surface with electron beam

Topic No 78: Digestive System Nutrition

Acquiring energy from the environment to create our food
There are various types of food that we eat and how energy is extracted from that.
Different modes of nutrition like herbivores, carnivores and omnivores
Important organs in human beings that take part in food digestion
Transport systems are required for distribution of nutrients in living beings.

Topic No 79: Nutrition and Digestion in Animals

Ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation, and elimination are important processes in nutrition
Digestion breaks down complex organic molecules, like carbohydrates and proteins, into simpler ones.
Absorption takes place in various parts of the alimentary canal.

Topic No 80: Basic Components of Human Digestive System

The alimentary canal (from mouth to anus) and its organs and associated glands are crucial components of digestion
These include the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and intestines. Also involved are associated glands (liver and pancreas) that produce digestive juices playing essential roles.

Topic No 81: Small Intestine

The duodenum is where most digestion takes place followed by the jejunum and ilium
The absorption of digested nutrients mainly happens in the jejunum and ilium

Topic No 82: Large Intestine

In the large intestine, primarily water is reabsorbed.
Undigested food materials are expelled from the body as feces.
Bacteria play roles in digestion.

Topic No 83: Liver and Pancreas

Liver and pancreas play key supplementary roles in digestion through secretion of bile and pancreatic juices.
The liver helps in the digestion of fats through bile.
Pancreatic juices help with nutrient digestion via various enzymes.

Topic No 84: Transport System and Blood - The Circulatory Fluid

Organisms need a transport system to distribute materials within the body and exchange them with the environment
Transport systems are essential for maintaining homeostasis in complex organisms

Topic No 85: Composition of Blood

Human blood is a complex mixture composed of plasma (55%) and cellular components (RBCs, WBCs and platelets)
Plasma is the liquid part primarily made up of water in which proteins, nutrients, salts and other materials are dissolved

Topic No 86: Blood Groups and Transfusion

There are several blood groups based on the presence or absence of antigens (like A, B, or Rh antigens.)
Compatibility is crucial for blood transfusions; different blood types may react negatively

Topic No 87: Circulatory System in Humans – Blood Vessels and Heart

The circulatory system in humans involves blood vessels such as arteries and veins, as well as a four-chambered heart.
These work together to drive the circulatory fluid (blood) around the body.

Topic No 88: Structure and Functions of Blood Vessels

Arteries carry high-pressure blood away from the heart to body.
Veins carry low-pressure blood back to the heart.
Capillaries are thin-walled blood vessels that facilitate nutrient and waste gas exchange between the blood and tissues

Topic No 89: Structure of the Human Heart

The heart, a muscular pump, consists of four chambers (two atria and two ventricles) and valves to ensure unidirectional flow of blood.
The four chambers work together to collect, pump, and circulate blood efficiently.

Topic No 90: Cardiac Cycle

Cardiac cycle describes one complete heartbeat
The heart goes through phases of relaxation (diastole) and contraction (systole) to regulate blood flow.

Topic No 91: Respiration: Introduction

Living organisms require energy for different processes.
Respiration is the process of extracting energy from food for use in cellular reactions

Topic No 92: Respiration in Animals

Various animals have diversified respiratory mechanisms
Respiratory systems are adapted to their environments; including those dwelling in water or on land.

Topic No 93: Structure of Lungs

Lungs are spongy organs made up of alveoli.
Their structure maximizes gas exchange surface area.
Mechanisms like the diaphragm and rib cage are integral part of ventilation.

Topic No 94: Factors Affecting Gas Exchange

Factors such as temperature and pH influence the oxygen-carrying capacity of hemoglobin.
The availability of oxygen and carbon dioxide directly affects gas exchange rates

Topic No 95: Excretory System

Organisms need to expel waste products from the body for effective functioning.
Excretory systems manage the removal of metabolic waste and also regulate water balance in the body.

Topic No 96: Excretion in Animals

The major excretory organs in animals.
Kidneys filter blood, produce urine
Skin, lungs and intestine are involved in excretion but not as heavily as kidneys

Topic No 97: Functioning of the Kidney: Urine Formation

There are three processes that happen in the kidneys to regulate waste removal
Filtration: blood in the kidneys is pressurized to push water and waste into the collecting tubules
Reabsorption: the useful components (like water, salt, glucose) are now reabsorbed back into blood circulation
Secretion: the remaining waste is released in the form of urine.

Topic No 98: Osmoregulation

Kidneys regulate water and solute balance in blood.
The process is influenced by hormones like ADH.
This process depends on the water and mineral content in the surroundings and different types of urine.

Topic No 99: Ecology

Ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and their environment.

Topic No 100: Levels of Organization in an Ecosystem

Ecosystems are composed of organisms interacting with each other and their surrounding physical environment (biotic and abiotic factors).
Levels of organization within an ecosystem include organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, biomes, and biosphere.

Topic No 101: Energy Flow in Ecology

Energy flows through trophic levels (producers, primary consumers etc)
Energy is lost at each level of transfer through respiration and other processes

Topic No 102: Ecosystems - An Introduction

Ecosystem: an area where organisms live, interact with each other and their physical environment.
Biotic factors (living organisms) and abiotic factors (non-living components) comprise ecosystems

Topic No 103: Pyramids in Ecosystems

Pyramids show feeding relationships of organisms in an ecosystem

Topic No 104: Ecosystems – Examples

Describes characteristics of various ecosystems, like aquatic (freshwater, marine), terrestrial (forest, grassland, desert etc)

Topic No 105: Major Ecosystems in Pakistan

Describes the types of ecosystems in Pakistan and the organisms that inhabit them from different climatic zones.

Topic No 106: Evolution

Evolution is a change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations

Topic No 107: Eras of Evolution

A brief outline of the different stages of evolution and some of the key figures and ideas from each stage

Topic No 108: Competition as Driving Force Behind Evolution

The limited resources lead to competition amongst organisms.
Competing organisms with better adaptations survive and reproduce more effectively

Topic No 109: Variation as Driving Force Behind Evolution

Differences or variations amongst individuals of a species help in adaptation to the changing environment
The most successful or advantageous individuals leave more offspring

Topic No 110: Survival of the Fittest; Wallace's Theory of Evolution

Individuals that best fit their environment are more likely to thrive and reproduce
Their favourable traits are passed onto their offspring leading to evolution

Topic No 111: Ecosystem components

Ecosystems contain both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) factors.
Producers convert solar energy into usable forms; consumers obtain energy by consuming other organisms.

Topic No 112: Food Chains

Food chain shows single pathway of energy flow
Illustrates the feeding relationships within an ecosystem

Topic No 113: Food Webs

Shows the complex interconnections of multiple food chains in an ecosystem.

Topic No 114: Algae and Fungi

Algae are photosynthetic organism
Fungi are decomposers

Topic No 115: Types of Algal Organisms

Algae can be described based on their cellular organization, pigments, and other features

Topic No 116: The Fungi Kingdom

Fungi are a diverse group of heterotrophic eukaryotes.
Most are decomposers

Topic No 117: Habitats and Significance of Fungi

Fungi play important roles in various ecosystems
Fungi as decomposers
Fungi involvement in lichens and mycorrhizae

Topic No 118: Animals and Their Importance

Animal characteristics, like multicellular eukaryotes, are important for classification
Animal diversity and different phyla such as Porifera, Coelenterata and others.

Topic No 119: Phyla of Invertebrates with Examples

The different phyla of invertebrates and their distinguishing characteristics

Topic No 120: Major Classes of Vertebrates

Vertebrates possess a backbone and include many different classes such as fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals

Topic No 121: Importance of Vertebrates

Vertebrates are crucial parts of many food chains and important to ecosystems.

Topic No 122: Reproductive System

Organisms reproduce sexually or asexually
Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of gametes.
Asexual reproduction involves only one parent

Topic No 123: Types of Asexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction occurs under various methods including binary fission, budding, fragmentation, and vegetative propagation

Topic No 124: Sexual Reproduction in Plants

Sexual reproduction in plants involves different stages like pollination, seed formation and fruit formation

Topic No 125: Sexual Reproduction in Animals

Sexual reproduction in animals takes place through fertilization of male and female gametes

Topic No 126: Processes of Oogenesis and Spermatogenesis

Oogenesis and spermatogenesis are the processes that produce female and male gametes respectively through mitosis and meiosis.

Topic No 127: Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering is a biotechnological technique to modify or change characteristics of organisms
The technique includes inserting useful gene into another organism

Topic No 128: Applications of Biology in Culturing Animal

Several examples are mentioned about how biology is used in different industry for animal products like milk, meat, eggs, etc
The role of Biology in improving animal production

Topic No 129: Apiculture (Beekeeping)

Apiculture is the process of keeping honeybees.
Biology has significant role in improving honeybee production

Topic No 130: Applications of Biology in Agriculture and Plant Growth

Understanding and harnessing the principles of biology in agriculture to increase crop yields
Using biological methods to control pests

Topic No 131: Further Applications of Biology

Various examples of how biology is useful in agriculture

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Test your knowledge of fundamental biology concepts with this quiz. Questions cover topics such as the characteristics of living organisms, cell cycle phases, and biological organization levels. Perfect for students looking to reinforce their understanding of biological principles.