BIOL 1000 Lab: Units, Volume, and Organism Types

BIOL 1000 Lab Practical

Fundamental Units of Measurement

• Length/Distance is measured in meters (m).
• Weight/Mass is measured in kilograms (kg).
• Volume is measured in cubic meters (m³) or liters (L).
• Temperature is measured in Kelvin (K).

Calculating Volume

• The volume of a cube or rectangular prism = length x width x height

Metric Unit Conversions

• Kilo- (k) = 1,000
• Hecto- (h) = 100
• Deca- (da) = 10
• Base unit (meters, grams, liters) = 1
• Deci- (d) = 0.1
• Centi- (c) = 0.01
• Milli- (m) = 0.001

Autotrophs vs. Heterotrophs

• Autotrophs produce their own food through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
• Heterotrophs obtain energy by consuming other organisms.

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Organisms

• Prokaryotic organisms are unicellular and lack a nucleus.
• Eukaryotic organisms can be unicellular or multicellular and possess a defined nucleus.

Domain Bacteria Characteristics

• Prokaryotic with no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles.
• Unicellular organisms possess a peptidoglycan cell wall.
• Reproduce asexually via binary fission.
• Contain circular DNA and no nucleus.
• Exhibit diverse metabolism, being either autotrophic or heterotrophic.

Domain Eukarya Characteristics

• Eukaryotic with a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
• Can be unicellular or multicellular.
• Reproduce sexually or asexually.
• Contain linear DNA in the nucleus.
• Includes Kingdoms Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.

Kingdom Protista Characteristics

• Eukaryotic, mostly unicellular.
• Some are autotrophic (algae), while others are heterotrophic (protozoa).
• Live in aquatic or moist environments.

Kingdom Fungi Characteristics

• Eukaryotic, mostly multicellular (except yeast).
• Heterotrophic decomposers absorb nutrients.
• Possess cell walls of chitin.

Kingdom Plantae Characteristics

• Eukaryotic, multicellular, and autotrophic (photosynthesis).
• Possess cell walls of cellulose.
• Non-motile and produce oxygen.

Kingdom Animalia Characteristics

• Eukaryotic, multicellular, and heterotrophic (ingest food).
• Lack cell walls and are motile at some stage.
• Exhibit complex organ systems.

Basic Bacterial Cell Shapes

• Bacillus: rod-shaped.
• Coccus: spherical.
• Spirillum: spiral-shaped.

Nonvascular vs. Vascular Plants

• Nonvascular Plants (Bryophytes: mosses, liverworts): Lack vascular tissue (xylem & phloem), are small, grow in moist environments, and reproduce via spores.
• Vascular Plants (Ferns, gymnosperms, angiosperms): Possess xylem and phloem, can grow larger, and survive in diverse habitats.

Non-Seeded vs. Seeded Plants

• Non-Seeded Plants (Ferns, club mosses): Reproduce via spores and require water for fertilization.
• Seeded Plants (Gymnosperms & Angiosperms): Reproduce via seeds (protected embryos) and are more adapted for dry environments.

Gymnosperms vs. Angiosperms

• Gymnosperms (Conifers, pines): Have "naked seeds" (not enclosed in fruit) and usually needle-like leaves with cones for reproduction.
• Angiosperms (Flowering plants): Have seeds enclosed in fruit and flowers for reproduction, attracting pollinators. Divided into monocots & dicots.

Taxonomy Hierarchy

• Taxa from most inclusive to least inclusive: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.

Tree Leaf Identification - Simple vs Compound

• Simple Leaf: A single leaf blade is attached to a stem.
• Compound Leaf: Multiple leaflets attached to a single stalk.
• Pinnately Compound: Leaflets arranged along a central axis.
• Palmately Compound: Leaflets spread from a central point.

Leaf Arrangement

• Opposite: Leaves grow in pairs along the stem.
• Alternate: Leaves grow one at a time in a staggered pattern.
• Whorled: Three or more leaves grow in a circular pattern around the stem.

Leaf Shapes

• Oval: Egg-shaped.
• Lanceolate: Long and narrow, tapering at both ends.
• Cordate: Heart-shaped.
• Lobed: Deeply indented edges.

Leaf Margins (Edges)

• Entire : Smooth edges.
• Serrated: Small, sharp teeth along the edge.
• Lobed: Deeply curved indentations.
• Undulate: Wavy edges.

Scientific Nomenclature

• Format includes two parts: the genus name (capitalized) and the species name (lowercase), both italicized or underlined.

Total Magnification Calculation

• Total Magnification = (Eyepiece Magnification) x (Objective Lens Magnification)
• Scanning Lens: 4x eyepiece * 4x objective = 40x total
• Low Power Lens: 10x eyepiece * 10x objective - 100x total
• High Power Lens: 10x eyepiece * 40X objective = 400x total
• Oil Immersion Lens : 10x eyepiece * 100x objective = 1,000x total

Cell Theory

• All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
• The cell is the basic unit of life.
• All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Nucleus Structure and Function

• Structure: Surrounded by a nuclear membrane with pores, containing chromatin (DNA) and the nucleolus.
• Function: Control center of the cell, storing DNA, and regulating gene expression, along with cell activities like growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

Mitochondria Structure and Function

• Structure: Double membrane; inner membrane folds into cristae.
• Function: Known as the powerhouse of the cell, it produces ATP (energy) through cellular respiration.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Structure and Function

• Structure: A network of membranous tubes; can be rough (with ribosomes) or smooth (without ribosomes).
• Function: Rough ER synthesizes and folds proteins, while smooth ER synthesizes lipids, detoxifies drugs, and stores calcium ions.

Golgi Apparatus Structure and Function

• Structure: A series of flattened membranous sacs.
• Function: Modifies, packages, and ships proteins and lipids for export or use within the cell.

Ribosomes Structure and Function

• Structure: Small, RNA and protein particles either floating in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough ER.
• Function: Protein synthesis, translating messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins.

Lysosomes Structure and Function

• Structure: Membrane-bound vesicles containing digestive enzymes.
• Function: Breaks down waste materials, cellular debris, and foreign substances.

Cytoskeleton Structure and Function

• Structure: A network of protein filaments (microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules).
• Function: Maintains cell shape, allows movement (both inside the cell and cell mobility), aids in cell division.

Plasma Membrane Structure and Function

• Structure: A phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
• Function: Regulates what enters and exits the cell, providing protection and communication with other cells.

Vacuoles Structure and Function

• Structure: Membrane-bound sacs.
• Function: Storage of nutrients, waste products, and helps maintain cell rigidity (in plant cells).

Chloroplasts Structure and Function

• Structure: Double-membrane organelles containing chlorophyll.
• Function: Carry out photosynthesis, converting sunlight into energy for the plant.

Plant Cell Structural Differences

• Have a rigid cell wall made of cellulose for structural support and protection.
• Rectangular or box-like shape due to the rigid cell wall.
• Contain chloroplasts, which carry out photosynthesis with chlorophyll.
• Contains a large central vacuole that stores water, nutrients, and waste products to maintain cell rigidity.

Animal Cell Structural Differences

• Lack a cell wall but posses a flexible plasma membrane.
• Have an irregular, round shape because of of the absence of a cell wall.
• Lack chloroplasts.
• Have smaller and numerous vacuoles (if present) and are typically involved in storage and transport.
• Contain more lysosomes for digestion and waste removal.
• Contain centrioles that assist in organizing spindle fibers during cell division.

Plasmodesmata

• Plant cells have these, which are channels that connect plant cells to each other, allowing communication and material exchange.
• Animal cells lack these but may have gap junctions for cell communication.

Cell Membrane

• Structure: A phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. It is flexible and selectively permeable.
• Function: Controls the entry and exit of substances, cell's internal environment, enables communication, and participates in transport, signal reception, and cell recognition.
• Present in all cells.

Cell Wall

• Structure: A rigid, protective outer layer composed of cellulose (plants), chitin (fungi), or peptidoglycan (bacteria).
• Function: Provides structural support, protection, and shape, assisting in resisting turgor pressure.
• Present in plants, fungi, bacteria, and some algae.

Cell Membrane vs Cell Wall Summary

• Cell Membrane: All cells (plant, animal, fungi, bacteria).
• Cell Wall: Plants, fungi, bacteria, and some algae.

Unicellular Organisms

• Structure: Composed of a single cell.
• Examples: Bacteria, protozoa, some algae, or yeast.
• Function: Carries out all life processes such as metabolism, reproduction, and environmental response at a cellular level.
• Characteristics: Tend to be independent and reproduce asexually.

Colonial Organisms

• Structure: Composed of a group of genetically identical cells connected physically where they don't make a true multicellular oganism.
• Function: Each cell caries out its own processes but works in unison to help with movement or survival.
• Characteristics: A organism is not fully dependent on the cells like multicellular organisms.

Multicellular Organisms

• Structure: Composed of multiple specialized cells in tissues, organs and organ sytems.
• Examples: plants, animals and fungi.
• Function: Cells perform their own task within a larger system where they rely of each other for survival and reproduction.
• Multicellulars have differentiation where cells are are specialized for specific functions.
• Multicellulars are dependent on their cell's functionality to carry out the processes that keep then alive usually through sexual production/reproduction.

Unicellular

• One cell performs independently.

Colonial

• Connected cells where each carries its own function, but the colony operates to function.

Multicellular

• Many specialized cells organized where their job impacts survival to one another.

Amoeba

• Structure : Nucleus, pseudopodia, food vacoule, contractile vacoule.
• Function : Move and feed with the use of the false feet which allows them to obtain food
• Heterotrophic

Paramecium

• Structure : Nucleus, vacoule, cilia,and oral groove.
• Function: Cillia are hairs than assist with feeding and movement while it takes care of heterotrophic processes.

Euglena

• Structures: nucleus,flagelum,chloroplast,contractile vacoule.
• Function : Photosynthesis occurs with the chlorplasts in addition to feeding on substance with the use of the flagella to move around.

Spirogyra

• Structure : Chloroplasts, cell walls, filaments and nucleus
• Function: Photosynthesis takes place to keep the colonial growth in filaments happening.

Amoeba - Movement

• By forming false feet which are part of it's cytoplasm, it flows helping it crawl around.

Paramecium -Movement

• Beating it's hairs, it helps propel it moving foward.

Euglena- Movement

• The whip of its flagellum makes forth moving it.

Organic Molecules

• Carbohydrates: provide energy and structure.
• Proteins: repair and build tissues, enzymes for reactions.
• Lipids: storage, form membranes, energy.
• Nucleic Acids: store and transmit information.

Controls Signifcance

• Positive : An expected outcome when known substances trigger the proper result, ensures it is working as designed.
• Negative : A substance with no results ensures that there isnt anything false

Reagents

• Sugar: Benedicts
• Starch: lodine
• Lipid: Sudan IV
• Protein: Biuret

Solutions

• Sugar: Color changes to orange/red indicates positive, no change is negative.
• Starch: turning black and/or blue indicates a positive, no change means negative.
• Protein: turning purple indicates positive, no change mens negative.
• Lipid: If there ends up being a red stain it indicates that lipids are present, no stains show zero lipid presence.

Analysis

• Sugar: Benedict add heat, + is orange/red.
• Starch: Add lodine, + is blue/black
• Protein: Biuret + is purple
• Lipids : + is red

Volume

• A larger surface area helps for efficient transport.
• Smaller cells have larger areas for faster exchange.

Volume

• Solution mix of solute inside of solution
• Solute which is in solution
• Solvent which the solute dissolves in Osmosis: water flows across a membrane Diffusion- The flow of particles high to low Equilibrium is balance

Molecular Effects

• Smaller are faster

Molecule Diffuse Rate

• Larger are slower

Solution List

• Animal- Equal
• Isotonic Plant- no change

Solution list

• Animal cell burst
• Hypotonic- Turgid state with plant.

Hypertonic

• Plasmolysis: Plant cell comes off the wall.
• Animal shrink

Plant in Hypertonic

• The water that leaves a cell will trigger membranes to repel off the cell.
• Shrinkage will occur.

To observe

• Measure volume to witness osmosis.
• A change in mass has zero reagents.

Measurement

Conductance can be used to determine salt. No reagents. Iodine can assist with the present of starch

Salt

Salt increases leads to conductivity.

• Note If no salt present then no changes in conductivity.

Startch

• Note If no starches present then color is unchanged. Is blue/black with starches.

Enzyme

Enzymes speed up substance, however are are not. Variable - Any factor or anything that is subject to change. Substrate: Reacts catalyzed. Hydrolysis: Molecules breakdown with adding water Active Site: where the substrate connects and binds.

• Product: Formed from reacted chemical.
• Conformation: Shape of Protein.
• Denatured proteins have loss their shape making it void.

Amylase Reaction

• Amylase breaks down starch and turn it into maltose and add water.
• That catalyst is amylase.

Amylase

• Add lodine solution to the substance.
• Breakdown is present when its clear to show amylase act upon starch.

Amylase

• The Reagent can be iodine. Amylase :Blue/Black + Amylase - = Clear

Test of Result

No change with test means there is no reaction and no amylase. Results is dependent on hydrolysis.

Enzyme Factor

• More Breakdown: The Longer the time Rate is affected by temperature. Activity is optimum PH can reduce denature breakdown of amylase. breakdown.

Cell Respiration

Aerobic (O2) = Most Effiecent Anaerobic ( without O2) = Less Efficient

List: Overall Balance

• Glucose + Oxygen (aerobic) = Carbon Dioxide, Water, ATP.
• List Overall Balance:
• Alcohol Fermentation: Glucose, Ethanol, Carbon Dioxide, ATP.
• Lactic acid Fermentation is lactic acid + ATP.

Production

Carbon Dioxide for gas in yeast. Fermentation: Yeast can use sucrose, glucose and fructose Easier when simpler. Fermented with added Nutrients to increase the rate.

Titration

Technique determining concentration

Carbonic Acid

Respiration can be tracked, CO2 increased due to form.

Hydroxide

Phenolphthalein changes indicator to mark. Sodium Is as a titrant that is signaled.

Resazurin Role

Indicators of O2 is for is respiration

Spoilage

Lactic acid causes a color change while lowering PH, The resazurin is active with low 02 as it is identified due to the lack of the blue

Lactic acids

Muscle

Photosynthesis

CO + H2O plus light = C6H12O6 + 02.

Sources

Sun. Photosynthesis done by : Plants,Algae and Cyanobacteria

• autotrough makes their own food, Heterotroph cannot and requires energy through something else.

Leaf's

• Outer: Cuticle layer protection. Middle: Tissue and chloro Outer layer: Epidermis. Vein: Contains pholem, chlorplast and xylem.

Inside Chlorplasts

Outer and inner membrane Fluids called stroma that circle membrane Membrane called thylakoid is where all action happens with with light. Lamellae stacks which are thylakoid.

Action of light

Absorb green ,use the rest for photosynthesis. Dissolved carbonic acids assists in aquatic plants Monitor + Phenol for indication. Yellow indicator. Photosyth occurs, then it turn into pink and red. Then they separate paper. Antho is red Caroten is orange Yellow is xanthopyll Chlorophyll green.