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Questions and Answers
What is defined as the possession of more than two sets of chromosomes?
What is defined as the possession of more than two sets of chromosomes?
Which genetic disorder is characterized by the presence of an extra chromosome 21?
Which genetic disorder is characterized by the presence of an extra chromosome 21?
What does the Law of Independent Assortment state?
What does the Law of Independent Assortment state?
Which of the following processes results in four viable sperm cells?
Which of the following processes results in four viable sperm cells?
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What does biogeography study to provide evidence for evolution?
What does biogeography study to provide evidence for evolution?
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What is the primary characteristic of a monohybrid cross?
What is the primary characteristic of a monohybrid cross?
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Which term describes having two identical alleles for a trait?
Which term describes having two identical alleles for a trait?
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Which type of structure indicates common ancestry in organisms?
Which type of structure indicates common ancestry in organisms?
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What mechanism of evolution is characterized by a random change in allele frequencies?
What mechanism of evolution is characterized by a random change in allele frequencies?
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Which syndrome is a result of deletion of part of chromosome 5?
Which syndrome is a result of deletion of part of chromosome 5?
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What occurs in incomplete dominance?
What occurs in incomplete dominance?
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Which type of dating provides the actual age of a fossil in years?
Which type of dating provides the actual age of a fossil in years?
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Which mechanism of evolution involves humans selecting for specific traits?
Which mechanism of evolution involves humans selecting for specific traits?
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What kind of natural selection favors individuals at both extremes of a phenotype range?
What kind of natural selection favors individuals at both extremes of a phenotype range?
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Which type of anatomical structure is no longer functional in one organism but still serves a purpose in another?
Which type of anatomical structure is no longer functional in one organism but still serves a purpose in another?
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What is the effect of mutations in the context of evolution?
What is the effect of mutations in the context of evolution?
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What kind of speciation occurs when populations are geographically separated?
What kind of speciation occurs when populations are geographically separated?
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What type of adaptation includes the physical features of an organism, such as wings?
What type of adaptation includes the physical features of an organism, such as wings?
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What is codominance in genetics?
What is codominance in genetics?
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Which of the following is an example of a pre-zygotic reproductive isolating mechanism?
Which of the following is an example of a pre-zygotic reproductive isolating mechanism?
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Which genotype is not possible in the ABO blood grouping system?
Which genotype is not possible in the ABO blood grouping system?
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Which of the following disorders is an example of X-linked recessive inheritance?
Which of the following disorders is an example of X-linked recessive inheritance?
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What does mimicry refer to in biological terms?
What does mimicry refer to in biological terms?
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What does the term 'natural selection' refer to?
What does the term 'natural selection' refer to?
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What kind of mimicry occurs when a harmless species resembles a harmful one?
What kind of mimicry occurs when a harmless species resembles a harmful one?
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According to Lamarck's theory, how were long necks in giraffes understood to develop?
According to Lamarck's theory, how were long necks in giraffes understood to develop?
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Which mechanism prevents different species from mating due to behavioral differences?
Which mechanism prevents different species from mating due to behavioral differences?
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What does Darwin's concept of 'fitness' refer to in the context of natural selection?
What does Darwin's concept of 'fitness' refer to in the context of natural selection?
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What theory suggests that species evolve gradually over long periods of time?
What theory suggests that species evolve gradually over long periods of time?
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Which post-zygotic reproductive isolating mechanism leads to fertility issues in hybrids?
Which post-zygotic reproductive isolating mechanism leads to fertility issues in hybrids?
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Which scientist is NOT credited with the development of theories of evolution?
Which scientist is NOT credited with the development of theories of evolution?
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What is true about sex-linked genes?
What is true about sex-linked genes?
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What is the primary function of the alimentary canal?
What is the primary function of the alimentary canal?
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Which of the following macromolecules is broken down into amino acids?
Which of the following macromolecules is broken down into amino acids?
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What role does amylase play in the digestive system?
What role does amylase play in the digestive system?
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Which accessory organ produces insulin and glucagon?
Which accessory organ produces insulin and glucagon?
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Where does most nutrient absorption occur in the digestive system?
Where does most nutrient absorption occur in the digestive system?
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What is peristalsis?
What is peristalsis?
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Which condition is characterized by yellowing of the eyes?
Which condition is characterized by yellowing of the eyes?
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What is the importance of increased surface area in the digestive system?
What is the importance of increased surface area in the digestive system?
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What is the primary function of the alveoli in the respiratory system?
What is the primary function of the alveoli in the respiratory system?
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Which of the following correctly describes the role of hemoglobin in the circulatory system?
Which of the following correctly describes the role of hemoglobin in the circulatory system?
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What structure in the respiratory system connects the pharynx to the bronchi?
What structure in the respiratory system connects the pharynx to the bronchi?
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How is the breathing rate primarily controlled in the human body?
How is the breathing rate primarily controlled in the human body?
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Which type of blood vessel carries deoxygenated blood back to the heart?
Which type of blood vessel carries deoxygenated blood back to the heart?
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What is the difference between systole and diastole in heart function?
What is the difference between systole and diastole in heart function?
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What role do cilia play in the respiratory system?
What role do cilia play in the respiratory system?
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Which circuit in the circulatory system is responsible for moving blood between the heart and the lungs?
Which circuit in the circulatory system is responsible for moving blood between the heart and the lungs?
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Study Notes
Biodiversity
- Decreasing biodiversity has detrimental effects on food supplies, medicines, tourism, and ecosystems, disrupting crucial biogeochemical cycles.
- Maintaining biodiversity supports the health and sustainability of ecosystems.
- Habitat fragmentation, pollution, and climate change contribute to a rapid decline in biodiversity.
- Species extinction (approximately 27,000 per year) is a natural process, but human activities are driving a mass extinction event.
- Biodiversity encompasses the variety and number of species on Earth.
- Scientists have identified and described about 1.8 million species, with estimates suggesting up to 15 million.
Taxonomy and Classification
- Taxonomy is the branch of biology focusing on identifying and classifying organisms.
- Carolus Linnaeus is considered the "Father of Modern Taxonomy," developing a system for classifying species based on shared physical characteristics.
- Binomial nomenclature assigns each species a two-part name consisting of a genus name (capitalized) and a species name (lowercase). (Example: Felis silvestris)
- The order of taxonomic classification (most to least inclusive) is Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species. ("Did King Philip Come Over From Germany Swimming?")
- Taxonomic lists help determine relatedness, similarities, and differences between organisms.
- Dichotomous keys classify unknown organisms based on observable characteristics.
Phylogeny
- Phylogeny studies the evolutionary relationships among different groups of organisms.
- Evidence for phylogeny includes similar stages of embryonic development, homologous structures (anatomical similarities with different functions), and genetic similarities (genetically similar organisms more likely share a common ancestor.)
- Phylogenetic trees are diagrams showing evolutionary relationships among species.
- Branch tips represent descendant taxa.
- Internal nodes represent common ancestors.
- Edges/branches represent the evolutionary timeline.
- The root represents the most recent common ancestor.
- Sister groups are two taxa that split from the same node.
- A clade includes a common ancestor and all of its descendants.
Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes
- Prokaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles and are characterized by organisms like Eubacteria and Archaea.
- Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles and include organisms in the Eukarya domain (Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia).
- Eubacteria are diverse, widespread, and can be beneficial or harmful to humans.
- Archaea are "ancient bacteria" often found in extreme environments.
- Eubacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya are the three domains of life.
Bacteria
- Bacteria are classified by shape and arrangement (coccus, bacillus, spirillum).
- Arrangements include diplo-, strepto-, and staphylo- forms.
- Bacteria primarily reproduce asexually through binary fission, and some can reproduce sexually via conjugation.
- Bacteria can be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
Protists
- Protists are a diverse group of eukaryotic organisms.
- Some protists are unicellular, while others are multicellular.
- Protists can be autotrophic or heterotrophic and move using cilia, flagella, or pseudopods, and can reproduce asexually through binary fission or sexually through conjugation.
- Infolding was a key process leading to the development of membrane-bound organelles in eukaryotes.
- Endosymbiosis explains how mitochondria and chloroplasts developed in eukaryotes.
Viruses
- Viruses are non-living, infectious particles containing genetic material (DNA or RNA) within a protein capsid.
- Viruses are categorized by shape, genetic material, size, and the type of cell they infect.
- Viruses cannot replicate on their own and become active when their genetic material enters and controls a living cell.
- The lytic cycle involves viral invasion, replication, assembly, new virus release, and host cell destruction.
- The lysogenic cycle involves viral DNA integration into the host DNA, with viral replication only occurring when triggered by certain stimuli.
- Some viruses have an envelope derived from the host cell membrane.
Classification of Kingdoms
- The six kingdoms of life are Eubacteria, Archaea, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.
- These kingdoms are organized within the three domains: Eubacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
- Sources provide charts summarizing the type, number, structure, nutrition, and reproduction modes of each kingdom.
DNA Structure and Function
- DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid, is the fundamental hereditary material.
- Chromosomes are tightly packed chromatin containing genes.
- Genes are DNA segments encoding protein production and traits.
- Nucleotides are the building blocks of DNA, comprising a phosphate, deoxyribose sugar, and a nitrogenous base.
- DNA has a double-helix structure with complementary base pairing (A-T, G-C).
Chromosomes and Cell Division
- Haploid cells have one set of chromosomes, while diploid cells have two sets.
- Autosomes are non-sex chromosomes, and allosomes are sex chromosomes.
- Mitosis produces two identical daughter cells for growth and repair.
- The four stages of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
- Cytokinesis follows mitosis, dividing the cytoplasm.
- Meiosis produces four genetically unique haploid gametes.
- Meiosis I includes Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, and Telophase I. Homologous chromosomes pair up to form tetrads, and crossing over can occur.
- Meiosis II produces genetically unique haploid cells.
- Non-disjunction during meiosis can result in abnormal chromosome numbers.
- Karyotypes are visual representations of an organism's chromosomes used to identify abnormalities.
- Aneuploidy describes possessing an abnormal number of chromosomes (e.g., monosomy, trisomy).
- Polyploidy represents having more than two chromosome sets.
Theories of Evolution
- Lamarck's theory proposed the inheritance of acquired characteristics.
- Darwin's theory of evolution (Darwin-Wallace theory) proposes that species evolve via natural selection.
- Natural selection favors individuals with beneficial variations, increasing their survival and reproduction rates.
- Alfred Russel Wallace independently developed a similar theory of evolution.
- Charles Darwin's observations, particularly in the Galapagos Islands, led to his theories.
- Fitness refers to an organism's ability to survive, reproduce, and pass on traits to its offspring.
- The fossil record is evidence of life's history and shows species changing and going extinct.
Mechanisms of Evolution
- Genetic drift is random change in allele frequencies.
- Gene flow involves the movement of genes between populations.
- Mutations introduce new genetic variations.
- Sexual selection favors traits that increase mating success.
- Artificial selection involves human-directed breeding for specific traits.
- Natural selection favors traits that increase survival and reproduction in a particular environment.
Speciation
- Speciation is the process of forming new species.
- Allopatric speciation occurs when populations are geographically separated.
- Sympatric speciation occurs when populations become reproductively isolated without geographic separation.
Adaptations
- Adaptations are characteristics that enhance survival and reproduction in a specific environment.
- Structural adaptations involve physical features.
- Physiological adaptations involve chemical processes.
- Behavioral adaptations are actions taken to respond to the environment.
- Mimicry is when one species resembles another.
Digestive System
- The alimentary canal processes food through the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.
- Accessory organs (salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas) aid in digestion.
- Peristalsis is muscle contraction moving food.
- Macromolecules are broken down to smaller components.
- Carbohydrates are broken into monosaccharides.
- Proteins are broken into amino acids.
- Fats are broken into fatty acids and glycerol.
- Enzymes speed up chemical reactions.
- Nutrients are absorbed, with capillaries absorbing most digested nutrients and lacteals absorbing lipids.
- Insulin lowers blood glucose.
- Glucagon raises blood glucose.
Respiratory System
- The respiratory system facilitates gas exchange.
- The trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli are key structures.
- Cilia and mucus filter the air.
- Breathing involves inhalation and exhalation, diaphragm movement, and intercostal muscle contraction.
- Respiration rate is controlled by carbon dioxide concentration.
Circulatory System
- The circulatory system transports blood and various substances throughout the body.
- Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart, while veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
- Capillaries exchange gases, nutrients, and wastes.
- Hemoglobin carries oxygen.
- The pulmonary and systemic circuits are two divisions.
- Blood pressure measures the force of blood against vessel walls with systole as contraction and diastole as relaxation.
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Test your knowledge on biodiversity and taxonomy, including the importance of maintaining biodiversity and the classification of organisms. Explore the effects of human activities on species extinction and learn about the contributions of key figures like Carolus Linnaeus.
