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Questions and Answers
What type of bond is primarily found in carbohydrates?
What type of bond is primarily found in carbohydrates?
Which of the following statements about proteins is true?
Which of the following statements about proteins is true?
What is the term used to describe amino acids that the body cannot produce?
What is the term used to describe amino acids that the body cannot produce?
What type of bond is formed in nucleic acids?
What type of bond is formed in nucleic acids?
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What is an example of a special form of lipid?
What is an example of a special form of lipid?
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Which of these biomolecules does not include phosphorus in its composition?
Which of these biomolecules does not include phosphorus in its composition?
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In the context of biomolecules, what does the term 'denaturation' refer to?
In the context of biomolecules, what does the term 'denaturation' refer to?
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Which of the following is NOT a type of bond associated with biomolecules?
Which of the following is NOT a type of bond associated with biomolecules?
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What is one of the common symptoms of thiamine deficiency?
What is one of the common symptoms of thiamine deficiency?
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Which type of beriberi is characterized by cardiac manifestations?
Which type of beriberi is characterized by cardiac manifestations?
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Which group of individuals is at risk for riboflavin deficiency?
Which group of individuals is at risk for riboflavin deficiency?
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Which condition is a result of severe niacin deficiency?
Which condition is a result of severe niacin deficiency?
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What is a common symptom associated with Pellagra?
What is a common symptom associated with Pellagra?
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Which of the following is a primary function of pantothenic acid?
Which of the following is a primary function of pantothenic acid?
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What is the average daily recommended consumption (RDA) for Vitamin B3?
What is the average daily recommended consumption (RDA) for Vitamin B3?
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What is a potential consequence of excessive niacin intake?
What is a potential consequence of excessive niacin intake?
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Which vitamin is classified as water-soluble?
Which vitamin is classified as water-soluble?
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What is the primary function of fat-soluble vitamins?
What is the primary function of fat-soluble vitamins?
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What distinguishes water-soluble vitamins from fat-soluble vitamins in terms of storage?
What distinguishes water-soluble vitamins from fat-soluble vitamins in terms of storage?
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Which method is primarily used for the absorption of thiamine?
Which method is primarily used for the absorption of thiamine?
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People at risk of thiamine deficiency include which of the following?
People at risk of thiamine deficiency include which of the following?
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Which of the following is a toxic characteristic of fat-soluble vitamins?
Which of the following is a toxic characteristic of fat-soluble vitamins?
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What is the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for thiamine?
What is the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for thiamine?
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In absorption, fat-soluble vitamins are first incorporated into which structure?
In absorption, fat-soluble vitamins are first incorporated into which structure?
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What are some sources of vitamin B6?
What are some sources of vitamin B6?
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What deficiency symptoms are associated with vitamin B6?
What deficiency symptoms are associated with vitamin B6?
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Which food is a rich source of biotin?
Which food is a rich source of biotin?
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What are the primary functions of folate?
What are the primary functions of folate?
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What can result from a deficiency of folate?
What can result from a deficiency of folate?
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Which group is most at risk for vitamin B12 deficiency?
Which group is most at risk for vitamin B12 deficiency?
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What is a symptom associated with biotin deficiency?
What is a symptom associated with biotin deficiency?
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What role does vitamin B12 play in the body?
What role does vitamin B12 play in the body?
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What role does vitamin C play in wound healing?
What role does vitamin C play in wound healing?
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What are common symptoms associated with severe vitamin C deficiency?
What are common symptoms associated with severe vitamin C deficiency?
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Which of the following fruits is not considered a good source of vitamin C?
Which of the following fruits is not considered a good source of vitamin C?
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What occurs when someone overdoses on vitamin C?
What occurs when someone overdoses on vitamin C?
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Which nutrients work together to act as antioxidants in the body?
Which nutrients work together to act as antioxidants in the body?
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What is one characteristic of fat-soluble vitamins?
What is one characteristic of fat-soluble vitamins?
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Which of the following vitamins is not classified as water-soluble?
Which of the following vitamins is not classified as water-soluble?
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What is a primary function of collagen in the body?
What is a primary function of collagen in the body?
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Study Notes
Biochemistry
- The study of life at the molecular level
- Biomolecules form the foundation of life and exist in a native state when sustaining life
- Denaturation disrupts the native state of biomolecules
- The molecular logic of life highlights the complex interactions of inanimate molecules within living organisms
Biomolecules
- Include carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids
Carbohydrates
- Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
- Linked by glycosidic bonds (1,4 and 1,6)
Proteins
- Contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur
- Linked by peptide bonds which are linear in their native state
- Rearrangement of peptide bonds enables specific physiological functions
Nucleic Acids
- Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus
- Linked by phosphodiester bonds
Lipids
- Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
- Linked by ester bonds
- Specialized forms include:
- Sphingolipids (contain nitrogen)
- Phospholipids (contain phosphorus)
Additional Biological Elements
- Other complex organisms contain small amounts of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium obtained through nutrients
- These elements are linked through bonds such as:
- Electrostatic bonds
- Van Der Waal bonds
- Ionic bonds
- Hydrogen bonds
Proteins
- Derived from the Greek word "protos" meaning "the first or supreme"
- Macromolecules composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
- 20 standard amino acids are found in all proteins
Amino Acids
- Classified as essential and non-essential
Essential Amino Acids
- Not produced by the body
- Obtained through diet
Non-Essential Amino Acids
- Produced by the body
Vitamins
- Classified based on solubility: water-soluble and fat-soluble
Water-Soluble Vitamins
- Include vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and vitamin B complex
- Grouped into the B complex because they occur together in food sources
- B vitamins include:
- Thiamine (B1)
- Riboflavin (B2)
- Niacin (B3)
- Panthotenic acid (B5)
- Pyridoxine (B6)
- Biotin (B7)
- Folic acid
- Cyanocobalamin (B12)
- Function as coenzymes in energy production
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
- Include vitamins A, D, E, and K
Differences Between Fat-Soluble and Water-Soluble Vitamins
- Storage: Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the liver and fatty tissues, while water-soluble vitamins are not stored except for Vitamin B12.
- Absorption: Fat-soluble vitamins are first incorporated into chylomicrons and transported through the lymphatic system to the bloodstream and then to the liver. Water-soluble vitamins are absorbed directly from the small intestine into the bloodstream.
- Toxicity: Fat-soluble vitamins are toxic and lethal in excess, and not easily excreted. Water-soluble vitamins are generally non-toxic as excess amounts are excreted in the urine.
- Function: Fat-soluble vitamins function as coenzymes, hormones, and antioxidants. Water-soluble vitamins function as precursors for coenzymes and antioxidants.
Thiamine (B1)
- Active form is thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP)
- Found in pork, legumes, fish, peas, liver, wheat, oil seeds, nuts, egg yolk, yeast, milk, bread, and pasta
- Absorbed in the small intestine via active transport and simple diffusion
- Functions in energy production, promotes normal appetite, and plays a role in muscle contraction and nerve signal conduction
- Deficiency can lead to:
- Mental confusion
- Muscle weakness and wasting
- Water retention (edema)
- Enlarged heart
- Beriberi (four types: dry, wet, cerebral, and infantile)
Riboflavin (B2)
- Decomposes in the presence of visible light
- Found in eggs, kidney, liver, fish, milk and milk products, dark green vegetables, cereals, and legumes
- Deficiency is rare
- Groups at risk include vegan athletes, pregnant and breastfeeding mothers, and their babies.
- Deficiency symptoms include:
- Skin disorders
- Cracks at the corners of the mouth
- Hair loss
- Itchy and red eyes
- Reproduction problems
- Cataracts (clouding of the lens of the eye)
Niacin (B3) / Nicotinamide / Nicotinic Acid
- Involved in energy production and cellular functions
- Found in fish, beef, chicken, eggs, peas, nuts, and seeds
- Deficiency is uncommon, most commonly found in people with limited diets low in protein
- Deficiency can lead to Pellagra (dermatitis, diarrhea, and dementia)
- Symptoms include:
- Skin problems
- Digestive issues
- Mental confusion
- Recommended Daily Allowance is 35mg/day - Excess can cause flushed skin, rashes, hypotension, or liver damage
- Overconsumption is not a problem if attained through food
Pantothenic Acid (B5)
- Aids in energy production and hormone formation
- Helps in the metabolism of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates
- Found in plant-based and animal-based foods with richest sources including fortified breakfast cereals, liver, kidney, meats, and seeds
- Deficiency can lead to Goplan's Burning Foot Syndrome (paresthesia in lower body)
- Recommended Daily Allowance is approximately 10mg/day
Vitamin B6: Pyridoxine, Pyridoxal, Pyridoxamine
- Aids in protein metabolism, red blood cell formation, and acts as an antioxidant
- Involved in the body's production of neurotransmitters and hemoglobin
- Found in legumes, organ meats, fish, meats, starchy vegetables, whole grains, and fortified cereals
- Deficiency symptoms include:
- Dermatitis
- Swollen tongue
- Peripheral neuropathy
- Anemia
- Depression and confusion
- Weakened immune function
- Deficiency in infants can cause irritability, acute hearing issues, and convulsive seizures
- Excess intake can lead to nerve damage
Vitamin B7: Biotin (vitamin H)
- Helps release energy from carbohydrates
- Aids in the metabolism of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates
- Found in liver, kidney, egg yolk, fresh vegetables, yeast breads, and cereals
- Deficiency is uncommon
- Deficiency symptoms include:
- Hair loss
- Skin rashes
- Brittle nails
Folate (folic acid/folacin)
- Aids in protein metabolism, red blood cell formation, and reduces risk of neural tube defects
- May play a role in controlling homocysteine levels, reducing risk of coronary heart disease
- Found in liver, kidney, dark green vegetables, meats, legumes, fish, whole grains, and fortified grains and cereals
- Deficiency affects cell growth and protein production, leading to impaired growth
- Deficiency in pregnant women or women of childbearing age can lead to neural tube defects such as spina bifida
- Anemia is the primary clinical sign of folate deficiency, with symptoms like fatigue, headache, and heart palpitations
Vitamin B12: Cobalamin
- Aids in building genetic material, producing normal red blood cells, and maintaining the nervous system
- Found in meats, liver, kidney, fish, eggs, milk and milk products, oysters, and shellfish
- Fortified foods including breakfast cereals and nutritional yeast may also contain Vitamin B12
- Deficiency commonly affects vegans, infants of vegan mothers, and the elderly
- Symptoms include anemia and neurological changes such as numbness and tingling in the hands and feet
Vitamin C: Ascorbic Acid / Ascorbate
- Water-soluble vitamin
- Essential for proper bodily function
- Benefits the body through collagen synthesis, which holds cells together
- Important for wound healing
- Other functions include:
- Bone and tooth formation
- Strengthening the blood vessel walls
- Improving immune system function
- Increasing iron absorption and utilization
- Acting as an antioxidant
- Works with vitamin E as an antioxidant to neutralize free radicals
- Regenerates vitamin E after it neutralizes free radicals, protecting against oxidative stress
- Found in fruits and vegetables, with best sources being citrus fruits, peppers, kiwi, strawberries, and broccoli
- Deficiency (Scurvy) is rare and can cause fatigue and a loss of collagen strength, leading to loose teeth, bleeding and swollen gums, and improper wound healing.
- Overdosing can increase the risk of kidney stones, diarrhea, rebound scurvy, and increased oxidative damage
Fat-Soluble Vitamins - ADEK
- Consist of vitamins A, D, E, and K
- Structurally related, sharing a basic structural unit of the molecule a five-carbon isoprene segment
Characteristics of Fat-Soluble Vitamins
- Protect cell membranes from free radical damage
- Act within a cell's nucleus to influence gene expression
- Absorbed into lymph with fats from food
- Have large storage capacity in fatty tissues
- Do not need to be consumed daily to prevent deficiency (may take months to develop)
- Toxicity is more likely
Vitamin A
- Exists in three forms:
- Retinol (OH)
- Retinal (CHO)
- Retinoic acid (COOH)
- Found in foods of animal origin such as liver, butter, and egg yolk.
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Description
Test your knowledge on the fundamental concepts of biochemistry, including the structure and function of biomolecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. This quiz will cover essential links, interactions, and significance of these molecules in sustaining life.
