Biochemistry Fundamentals Quiz

General Biochemistry (CHY 2026) - Unit 1: Introduction

• Biochemistry is the science focused on the chemical nature and behavior of living matter. It analyzes living matter in terms of chemistry.
• This includes metabolic reactions like digestion, excretion, and respiration.
• It also involves analyzing biomolecules and characterizing cell components.
• Biochemistry's origins trace back to the early 1500s and the term itself was introduced by Carl Neuberg in 1903.

Branches of Biochemistry

• Biochemistry can be categorized as descriptive and dynamic.
• Descriptive Biochemistry: Focuses on the qualitative and quantitative characterization of cell components.
• Dynamic Biochemistry: Concerned with the mechanisms of action involving those components.

Newer Disciplines in Biochemistry

• Enzymology,
• Endocrinology,
• Clinical Biochemistry,
• Molecular Biology,
• Biotechnology,
• Pharmacological Biochemistry,
• Nutrition,
• Fermentation Technology, and more.

Applications of Biochemistry

• Biochemistry is involved in various fields, including:
  • Science communication: Public outreach and education.
  • Marketing: Promoting biochemical products and research.
  • Forensics: Applying biochemistry to legal investigations.
  • Patent law: Protecting intellectual property related to biochemical discoveries.
  • Bioinformatics: Using computational tools for analyzing biological information.
  • Commerce: Applying biochemical understanding to industrial production.
  • Research: Fundamental protein, gene, and enzyme function studies.
  • Biotechnology: Crop improvement, environmental protection, livestock health/quality, winemaking, pharmaceutical & household product developments.
  • Human health: Cancer, Alzheimer's, diabetes, infectious disease, arthritis, HIV, etc.

Importance of Biochemistry

• Understanding diseases: Identifying causes of ailments.
• Composition of living cells: Studying the molecular nature of living cells.
• Biomolecule location/structure: Knowing where biomolecules reside and their shapes within cells.
• Biomolecule function & relationship: Understanding how the structure of biomolecules relates to their functions.
• Biochemicals in cells: Studying the origins and production of various biochemicals, both from nutrients and within cellular processes.
• Pathways/biosynthesis/biodegradation: Insight into how biomolecules interact in metabolic pathways.
• Maintaining cellular molecule concentration: Understanding how cells regulate necessary biomolecular concentrations for metabolic activity.

Chemical Composition of Humans

• Humans consist of various chemical compositions.

Biological Importance of Water

• Water is fundamental for life as a molecular compound (H₂O).
• It is the most abundant substance on Earth.
• Many organisms are high proportion water (e.g., 72% in the human body).
• Humans (and other organisms) maintain body temperature through water. Large water loss can be fatal.

What Water Does for You (Human Body)

• Water has many roles in the human body, including:
  • Forms saliva (crucial for digestion).
  • Keeps mucous membranes moist.
  • Allows cell growth, reproduction, and survival.
  • Flushes body waste (primarily urine).
  • Lubricates joints.
  • Is a major component of most body parts.
  • Regulates body temperature.
  • Acts as a shock absorber (brain, spinal cord).
  • Converts food to components for organism survival (digestion).
  • Helps deliver oxygen throughout the body.

Water Balance

• Water balance is the equilibrium between water intake and output.
• Metabolic water is available through the oxidation of food.
• Dehydration can result if output exceeds intake, particularly dangerous for infants. Water accumulation (edema) can also be problematic.
• Examples like Kwashiorkor showcase these issues.

Daily Water Intake and Output

• Daily water intake and output vary by climate. (See table 2-2 in supplemental material).

Overview of Chemical Composition of the Body

• Carbon compounds are versatile and polymerize into large macromolecules.
• Macromolecules are often polymers, assembled through smaller organic molecules (monomers) via condensation.
• Macromolecules possess different properties than their constituent monomers (e.g., glucose vs. starch).

Biological Macromolecules

• The major organic macromolecules are:
  • Carbohydrates
  • Proteins
  • Lipids
  • Nucleic Acids.

Macromolecules and Monomers

• Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides. Examples include glucose, fructose, galactose
• Proteins: Amino acids
• Lipids: Fatty acids and glycerols
• Nucleic acids: Nucleotides (See supplementary table on Macromolecules and their Monomers)

Organic Compound Groups & Examples

• Detailed information on different organic compounds found within the body. This includes carbohydrates' structural details, protein-based enzymes, types of lipids, and nucleic acids' role. (See supplementary table about various organic compounds).
• This includes specific examples such as glucose, cholesterol & DNA

Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates—also known as sugars or saccharides—are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
• Plants contain more carbohydrates than animals.
• Carbohydrates are essential energy sources for the body (especially the brain).
• They are components of RNA and DNA.
• They are a structural component of bacterial/plant cell walls

Carbohydrates Continued and other functions

• Carbohydrate molecules are linked to proteins (glycoproteins) and lipids (glycolipids), facilitating cell-to-cell recognition processes.
• Dietary fiber increases bowel movement.

Proteins

• Proteins are the most abundant intracellular macromolecules.
• Proteins are primarily composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and small amounts of sulfur.
• Proteins are often biological catalysts (enzymes).
• Proteins act as carriers for small molecules and ions (e.g., hemoglobin carries oxygen).
• Proteins are crucial to the strength of structures like skin and bone.
• Proteins regulate immune responses, crucial in nerve impulse transmission and are parts of the muscle tissue.

Lipids

• Lipids are a diverse group including fats, oils, and waxes.
• Lipids are important energy storage molecules and part of membranes.
• Lipids are essentially insoluble in water (hydrophobic).

Nucleic Acids

• Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are found in the cell nucleus and cytoplasm.
• Nucleic acids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus.
• DNA and RNA store and transmit genetic information.
• Nucleic acids are involved in protein synthesis and metabolic processes.

Functional Groups

• Functional groups are specific atomic groups or structures that define particular molecular properties (e.g., hydroxyl, methyl).
• These functional groups alter certain properties of molecules.

Functional Groups and Linkages

• Various functional groups present in biologically active compounds can form linkages into prodrugs.. (See table for examples)

Covalent and Non-Covalent Interactions

• Intermolecular forces: Forces of attraction between molecules/atoms (important in the overall shape of biological molecules.
• Covalent interactions: Interactions that share electrons between atoms creating chemical bonds in molecules.
  • Example: Disulfide bonds formed through oxidation of sulfur-containing molecules.

Non-Covalent Interactions

• Non-covalent forces shape the structure and function of biological molecules, influencing both shape and flexibility within the cell.
• These interactions are critical to interactions with other molecules inside a cell.
• Non-covalent interactions include:
  • Hydrogen bonds
  • Ionic Interactions (salt bridges)
  • Van der Waals interactions
  • Hydrophobic interactions.

Hydrogen Bonds

• A type of intermolecular force where a hydrogen atom is attracted to an electronegative atom (N, O, or F).
• Hydrogen bonds are crucial in maintaining the structure of many biological molecules, including proteins and nucleic acids.

Ionic Interactions

• Occur between oppositely charged ions (e.g., salt bridges).

Van der Waals Interactions

• Weak, temporary attractions between molecules or atoms due to fluctuating electron densities.

Hydrophobic Interactions

• These interactions occur between non-polar molecules in an aqueous environment as a result of the energetically unfavorable interaction between water and non-polar molecules.

Covalent Bonds

• Chemical bonding of two atoms by sharing electrons.
• Disulfide bonds form by the oxidation of cysteine residues, which contributes to the stabilization of protein structures.