35 Questions
Which of the following is a 6-carbon molecule?
Citrate
Which of the following is a metabolic pathway that involves the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy?
Catabolism
During electron transport, protons are not pumped out of the mitochondrion at which complex?
Complex II
Glycogenolysis can be stimulated non-hormonally by the accumulation of which molecule?
AMP
Which metabolic pathway is responsible for the rapid rise in lactate concentration during a 400-m sprint?
Anaerobic glycolysis
Which metabolic pathway is responsible for the decline in lactate level after the 400-m sprint?
Cori cycle
Which hormone(s) can stimulate glycogenolysis?
Glucagon and Epinephrine
Which of the following mammalian cells is unable to aerobically metabolize glucose to carbon dioxide?
Muscle cells
What is/are the fate(s) of pyruvate?
All of the above
Which of the following is a product of the citric acid cycle?
All of the above
Which of the following is not a substrate for gluconeogenesis?
Fatty acids
Which of the following is a correct statement regarding the process of lipolysis?
Lipolysis is the breakdown of triacylglycerol into free fatty acids and glycerol
In metabolic pathways, which process involves the synthesis of ketone bodies from acetyl CoA?
Ketogenesis
The term 'glycogenesis' is correctly defined as:
The synthesis of glycogen from glucose
Which of the following correctly describes glycolysis?
Glycolysis occurs in the presence and absence of oxygen
In the chemiosmotic hypothesis, which component does NOT play a role?
The movement of water across cell membranes
Which scenario would disrupt the chemiosmotic gradient according to the text?
Increase in ADP and Pi acceptors
Which method can be used to identify bacteria based on enzyme activity and substrate utilization?
Metabolic / biochemical
What is the primary purpose of FISH in bacterial classification?
Identifying genetic sequences
Which bacterial genus is associated with tetanus and botulism?
Clostridia
Which bacterial species is known for causing pneumonia and is Gram-positive?
Streptococcus pneumoniae
Which technique can be utilized to differentiate between different strains of bacteria by analyzing their protein profiles?
Mass Spectrometry
Which bacterial species is commonly associated with foodborne illnesses like gastroenteritis?
Escherichia coli
What is the significance of core microbiota, as mentioned in the text?
They carry out essential homeostatic functions
How does the microbiota composition of monozygotic twins compare to dizygotic twins, based on the text?
Dizygotic twins have similar variability in microbiota
What is suggested by the finding that the microbiota of family members is more similar than unrelated individuals?
Environmental factors play a role in shaping microbiota
Why is it mentioned that approximately 75 species are common to over 50% of individuals?
To indicate the presence of core microbiota functions
What does the text imply about the relationship between microbial ecosystems and human biology?
Microbial ecosystems and human biology co-evolve together
In what way do monozygotic twins provide insights into the interplay between genetics and environmental factors in shaping microbiota composition?
Their microbiota variability resembles that of dizygotic twins
According to the phylogenetic tree of life shown, which of the following groups is most closely related to animals?
Fungi
Based on the image depicting the composition of the human microbiome, which of the following body sites has the most diverse microbial community?
Gut
According to the image depicting the evolutionary relationships of wild hominids, which of the following species is most closely related to humans (Homo sapiens)?
Pan troglodytes (chimpanzee)
Which of the following statements best describes the concept of co-evolution between hosts and their microbial communities?
Host and microbial genomes influence each other's evolution over time.
Based on the phylogenetic tree of life shown, which of the following groups is most closely related to bacteria?
Archaea
According to the image depicting the composition of the human microbiome, which of the following body sites has the least diverse microbial community?
Vagina
Study Notes
ATP Synthesis and Electron Transport
- Proton flow into mitochondria depends on the presence of ADP and Pi
- ATPase activity is reversible
- Only proton transport is strictly regulated, while other positively charged ions can diffuse freely across the mitochondrial membrane
Citric Acid Cycle
- The citric acid cycle produces 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATP
Glycogenolysis
- Glycogenolysis can be stimulated by the hormones Glucagon and Epinephrine
- Non-hormonally, the accumulation of AMP, or low energy level, which indicates low levels of ATP, can stimulate glycogenolysis
- Glycogenolysis is regulated by:
- Hormonal inhibition of glycogen synthase by Glucagon and Epinephrine (in muscle)
- Non-hormonal stimulation by low energy levels (accumulation of AMP)
Fates of Pyruvate
- Pyruvate can be involved in:
- Catabolism
- Anabolism
- Amphibolism
- Ketogenesis
- Degradation
Lactate and Anaerobic Glycolysis
- Anaerobic glycolysis converts pyruvate to lactate
- During a 400-m sprint, the rapid rise in lactate concentration is caused by anaerobic glycolysis
- After the run, the decline in lactate level is caused by the Cori cycle and gluconeogenesis
- The Cori cycle: lactate is converted back to pyruvate, and gluconeogenesis utilizes pyruvate to produce glucose and replace glycogen
Mammalian Cells and Glucose Metabolism
- Some mammalian cells are unable to aerobically metabolize glucose to carbon dioxide, such as:
- RBC (red blood cells)
- WBC (white blood cells)
- Reticulocytes
Gluconeogenesis
- Gluconeogenesis is the production of glucose from non-carbohydrate molecules
- Substrates for gluconeogenesis include:
- Lactate
- Alanine
- Glycerol
- Propionyl CoA
- Acetyl CoA is not a substrate for gluconeogenesis
Electron Transport Chain
- The ETC requires:
- ADP and Pi as acceptors
- O2 as the terminal electron acceptor
- NAD and FAD as electron carriers
- Lack of ADP and Pi, O2, or NAD and FAD will stop the ETC
- Uncoupling of the ETC will disrupt the chemiosmotic gradient
Hormones and Blood Glucose
- Insulin decreases blood glucose and increases the uptake of glucose in various tissues, such as:
- Skeletal muscle
- Adipose tissue
Metabolic Pathways
- Gluconeogenesis: the synthesis of glucose from lactate, glycerol, or amino acids
- Glycogenolysis: the breakdown of glycogen to glucose
- Lipolysis: the breakdown of triacylglycerol into free fatty acids and glycerol
- Ketogenesis: the synthesis of ketone bodies from acetyl CoA
Bacterial Morphology and Classification
- Bacterial classification involves:
- Morphological staining (shape, cell wall composition)
- Metabolic/biochemical (enzyme activity, substrate utilization)
- Genetic (DNA/RNA, PCR, sequencing, FISH)
- Immunologic (ELISA, agglutination test)
- Mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF)
Microbiome and Host Interactions
- The human microbiome is composed of:
- 25 phyla
- 2,000 genera
- 5,000 species
- 316 M genes
- Each person has approximately 500-1000 gut species
- The core microbiota is composed of approximately 75 species common to >50% of individuals
- Co-maturation of the microbiota and immune system occurs during initial microbial colonization
- Co-evolution of humans and their microbiota has led to the development of specific microbial communities at different body sites
Test your knowledge on Electron Transport Chain (ETC) and hormones related to blood glucose regulation. Identify true statements about ETC and determine the hormone that decreases blood glucose levels and increases glucose uptake in tissues.
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