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Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of ATP in the body?
What is the primary function of ATP in the body?
Which metabolic process is responsible for the production of lactate?
Which metabolic process is responsible for the production of lactate?
What percentage of energy from catabolic reactions is typically transferred to ATP?
What percentage of energy from catabolic reactions is typically transferred to ATP?
Which of the following is not a step in the metabolic process of carbohydrates?
Which of the following is not a step in the metabolic process of carbohydrates?
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What is the primary role of the urea cycle in protein metabolism?
What is the primary role of the urea cycle in protein metabolism?
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Which metabolic process occurs during the absence of oxygen?
Which metabolic process occurs during the absence of oxygen?
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Which of the following correctly describes catabolic reactions?
Which of the following correctly describes catabolic reactions?
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What happens when the body has a net negative energy balance?
What happens when the body has a net negative energy balance?
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What triggers the release of insulin from pancreatic beta cells?
What triggers the release of insulin from pancreatic beta cells?
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During starvation, which of the following is prioritized for survival?
During starvation, which of the following is prioritized for survival?
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What hormone is released by the alpha cells of the pancreas in response to low blood glucose levels?
What hormone is released by the alpha cells of the pancreas in response to low blood glucose levels?
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What process begins in the liver when blood glucose concentrations decrease?
What process begins in the liver when blood glucose concentrations decrease?
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Which mechanism of heat exchange involves the evaporation of water from the skin's surface?
Which mechanism of heat exchange involves the evaporation of water from the skin's surface?
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What is the definition of a calorie in terms of water temperature change?
What is the definition of a calorie in terms of water temperature change?
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What role does the hypothalamus play in thermoregulation?
What role does the hypothalamus play in thermoregulation?
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Which mechanism of heat exchange transfers heat without direct contact between two objects?
Which mechanism of heat exchange transfers heat without direct contact between two objects?
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What is the primary fuel for ATP production in cells?
What is the primary fuel for ATP production in cells?
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During starvation, what process does glucagon stimulate?
During starvation, what process does glucagon stimulate?
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What hormone is primarily synthesized in response to stress and increases blood glucose levels?
What hormone is primarily synthesized in response to stress and increases blood glucose levels?
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Excess fat is predominantly stored in which type of cells?
Excess fat is predominantly stored in which type of cells?
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What do anabolic reactions primarily involve?
What do anabolic reactions primarily involve?
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The deficiency of which enzyme leads to Phenylketonuria (PKU)?
The deficiency of which enzyme leads to Phenylketonuria (PKU)?
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Cushing syndrome is associated with what major hormonal imbalance?
Cushing syndrome is associated with what major hormonal imbalance?
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What metabolic process breaks down triglycerides for energy?
What metabolic process breaks down triglycerides for energy?
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Which hormone is responsible for stimulating muscle growth and strength?
Which hormone is responsible for stimulating muscle growth and strength?
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In Addison's disease, what is primarily insufficiently produced?
In Addison's disease, what is primarily insufficiently produced?
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The primary treatment for Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex deficiency involves what?
The primary treatment for Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex deficiency involves what?
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Which nutrient is broken down into nucleotides during digestion?
Which nutrient is broken down into nucleotides during digestion?
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What is a common manifestation of high levels of phenylalanine in the body?
What is a common manifestation of high levels of phenylalanine in the body?
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Which substance is typically synthesized from monosaccharides in anabolic reactions?
Which substance is typically synthesized from monosaccharides in anabolic reactions?
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What is the main purpose of anaerobic respiration?
What is the main purpose of anaerobic respiration?
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Which molecule is primarily responsible for carrying high-energy electrons to the electron transport chain?
Which molecule is primarily responsible for carrying high-energy electrons to the electron transport chain?
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In glycolysis, how many ATP molecules are produced from one molecule of glucose?
In glycolysis, how many ATP molecules are produced from one molecule of glucose?
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What is the end product of glycolysis?
What is the end product of glycolysis?
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Which coenzyme functions alongside NAD+ in redox reactions?
Which coenzyme functions alongside NAD+ in redox reactions?
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During the Krebs cycle, what molecule does acetate combine with to form citric acid?
During the Krebs cycle, what molecule does acetate combine with to form citric acid?
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What is produced during fermentation when pyruvate is converted in the absence of oxygen?
What is produced during fermentation when pyruvate is converted in the absence of oxygen?
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How many total ATP molecules can be produced from one glucose molecule during aerobic respiration?
How many total ATP molecules can be produced from one glucose molecule during aerobic respiration?
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Which step of cellular respiration does not require oxygen?
Which step of cellular respiration does not require oxygen?
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What occurs to pyruvate in the Krebs cycle?
What occurs to pyruvate in the Krebs cycle?
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What is the role of coenzymes in oxidation-reduction reactions?
What is the role of coenzymes in oxidation-reduction reactions?
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What is the primary waste product generated from aerobic respiration?
What is the primary waste product generated from aerobic respiration?
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Which process involves the splitting of glucose into pyruvate?
Which process involves the splitting of glucose into pyruvate?
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What enzyme do coenzymes work best with in redox reactions?
What enzyme do coenzymes work best with in redox reactions?
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What is the primary function of the electron transport chain in cellular respiration?
What is the primary function of the electron transport chain in cellular respiration?
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Which molecule is produced when glucose undergoes gluconeogenesis?
Which molecule is produced when glucose undergoes gluconeogenesis?
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What hormone triggers the release of pancreatic lipase during lipid metabolism?
What hormone triggers the release of pancreatic lipase during lipid metabolism?
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In the breakdown of fatty acids, what is the process that generates energy called?
In the breakdown of fatty acids, what is the process that generates energy called?
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What are ketone bodies primarily used for by the body?
What are ketone bodies primarily used for by the body?
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What is the main purpose of the urea cycle?
What is the main purpose of the urea cycle?
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Which product is NOT a result of lipogenesis?
Which product is NOT a result of lipogenesis?
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What end product results from the breakdown of fatty acids through the Krebs cycle?
What end product results from the breakdown of fatty acids through the Krebs cycle?
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When does the absorptive state occur?
When does the absorptive state occur?
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What chemical structure do ketones contain?
What chemical structure do ketones contain?
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Which enzyme is primarily responsible for breaking down triglycerides in the intestine?
Which enzyme is primarily responsible for breaking down triglycerides in the intestine?
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What process occurs when the energy from amino acids is utilized?
What process occurs when the energy from amino acids is utilized?
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What happens to protons (H+) during the electron transport chain process?
What happens to protons (H+) during the electron transport chain process?
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Which process would occur predominantly if glucose levels are low in the body?
Which process would occur predominantly if glucose levels are low in the body?
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Study Notes
Carbohydrate Metabolism
- Cellular Respiration (with oxygen): Glucose is broken down to produce ATP (energy). This process involves glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.
- Glycolysis: Glucose is oxidized (broken down) into 2 pyruvate molecules, producing ATP and NADH. Occurs in the cytoplasm without oxygen.
- Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle): Pyruvate is further broken down, producing NADH, FADH2, ATP, and releasing carbon dioxide. Takes place in the mitochondrial matrix.
- Electron Transport Chain (Oxidative Phosphorylation): NADH and FADH2 release energy to pump protons, creating a gradient that drives ATP synthesis. Oxygen is the final electron acceptor, forming water.
- Anaerobic Respiration (without oxygen): Fermentation, converting pyruvate into lactic acid or alcohol, regenerates NAD+ for glycolysis. Produces less ATP than aerobic respiration.
- Gluconeogenesis: Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources (e.g., pyruvate, lactate) when glucose levels are low.
Lipid Metabolism
- Lipolysis: Breakdown of triglycerides (stored fats) into glycerol and fatty acids.
- Ketogenesis: Production of ketone bodies from fatty acids when glucose is insufficient.
- Ketone Body Oxidation: Ketones are used as an alternative fuel source.
- Lipogenesis: Synthesis of lipids (fats) from acetyl CoA when glucose is abundant.
Protein Metabolism
- Protein Digestion/Proteolysis: Proteins are broken down into amino acids.
- Energy from Amino Acids: Amino acids can be used to produce ATP or become precursors for other metabolic processes.
- Urea Cycle: Converts ammonia (a byproduct of protein breakdown) into urea, which is less toxic and excreted in urine.
General Metabolic Principles
- Metabolism: All chemical reactions in the body.
- Catabolic Reactions: Break down large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy (e.g., protein to amino acids).
- Anabolic Reactions: Build larger molecules from smaller ones, requiring energy (e.g., amino acids to protein).
- Energy Balance: Excess energy is stored as mass; insufficient energy uses stored reserves.
- ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate): Energy currency of the cell, powers bodily functions directly.
- Redox Reactions: Electron transfer reactions critical for energy production, catalyzed by specific enzymes and coenzymes NAD+ and FAD+.
Hormonal Regulation of Metabolism
- Catabolic Hormones: Stimulate molecule breakdown and energy production (e.g., cortisol, glucagon, adrenaline).
- Anabolic Hormones: Stimulate molecule synthesis (e.g., growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor, insulin, testosterone, estrogen).
Metabolic Diseases
- Examples: Cushing syndrome (excess cortisol), Addison's disease (insufficient cortisol), Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex deficiency, Phenylketonuria (PKU).
- Common Cause: Malfunctioning proteins/enzymes or imbalance in hormonal regulation.
Digestion and Absorption (Carbohydrates)
- Carbohydrate digestion: Begins in the mouth with enzymes like salivary amylase, ends in small intestine with monosaccharides absorbed.
- Monosaccharide transport: Absorbed into bloodstream, carried to liver.
- Glucose storage/utilization: Liver either releases glucose or stores it as glycogen; cells use glucose to produce ATP via cellular respiration.
Cellular Respiration Steps
- Aerobic Respiration Steps: Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, Electron Transport Chain.
- Glycolysis steps: Glucose is broken down to pyruvate, 2 ATP, and NADH are produced.
- Krebs Cycle steps: Pyruvate is broken down, NADH, FADH2, and ATP are produced.
- Electron Transport Chain steps: NADH and FADH2 release energy to form a proton gradient, ATP is produced.
Lipid Digestion
- Lipid digestion: Begins in the intestines.
- Bile salts: Emulsify fats for enzyme action.
- Pancreatic lipases: Break down triglycerides.
- Chylomicrons: Transport lipids in lymphatic and circulatory system.
Gluconeogenesis
- Gluconeogenesis: Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources (lactate, glycerol, amino acids).
Fatty Acid Breakdown
- Breakdown of fatty acids: Released as needed into the bloodstream used to generate energy via beta-oxidation.
- Beta-oxidation: Fatty acids are broken down into acetyl CoA.
- Acetyl CoA entry into the Krebs Cycle: Used in Krebs, then through electron transport.
Ketogenesis and Ketones
- Ketogenesis: Excess acetyl CoA forming ketone bodies.
- Ketones: Alternative fuel source utilized when glucose is unavailable, generated in the liver.
Protein Digestion further
- Protein digestion and absorption: Proteins are broken down by enzymes in the stomach and small intestine resulting in circulating amino acids.
- Amino acid utilization: Used by the body to generate energy, and as precursors in building tissues.
- Urea cycle: Critical process for converting ammonia to urea, which is then excreted.
Metabolic Rate and States
- Metabolic Rate: Energy consumed minus energy expended.
- Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR): Energy expenditure at rest.
- Absorptive State: After a meal, nutrients are absorbed.
- Post-absorptive State: After absorption, stored nutrients used to create energy.
Starvation
- Starvation Body's response to prolonged lack of food to prioritize brain function and conserve proteins.
Thermoregulation
- Hypothalamus control of thermoregulation: Controls core body temperature.
- Mechanisms of heat exchange: Conduction, evaporation, radiation, convection.
Calorie and Nutritional Calories
- Calorie: Energy to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree Celsius.
- Nutritional Calorie (kcal): Energy to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water by 1 degree Celsius.
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Description
Test your knowledge on the fundamental concepts of biochemistry and metabolism. This quiz covers ATP functions, metabolic processes, and the urea cycle. Challenge yourself with questions on energy transfer and catabolic reactions.
