Beliefs and Concepts in Hinduism

Beliefs of Hinduism

• Hinduism features a belief in multiple gods, viewed as different forms of a single unity, connected to both universal and natural processes.
• Hindus usually have a preference for one deity, but they do not exclude or disbelieve in others.
• Karma (cause and effect) and reincarnation are central beliefs.
• Hindus believe in the possibility of moksha, which is liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara).
• Hinduism is tied to the caste system, a hierarchical social structure, where an individual's position reflects past-life karma.
• Dharma, or behavior aligned with one's caste and status, is important, with different activities considered appropriate for different life stages.
• Religious life can include worldly pleasures alongside spiritual pursuits, depending on one's position in life.
• Observance of rituals and appropriate behavior is important to Hindus.
• Moksha, or release from samsara, is the ultimate spiritual goal.
• Pursuing moksha involves detaching from worldly feelings and perceptions to realize the ultimate unity of the soul (atman) with the universal (Brahman).
• Paths to moksha include knowledge, appropriate actions, and devotion to God.

Ideal Female Beauty

• Depicting idealized female beauty was important for temple architecture and considered auspicious and protective.
• Texts for temple builders described different "types" of women as symbols of fertility, growth, and prosperity.
• Images of loving couples (mithuna) symbolize divine union and moksha.
• Erotic images on temples served a ritual and symbolic function, not meant to be provocative.

Lakshmana Temple

• The Lakshmana temple was the first temple built by Chandella kings in Khajuraho.
• The Chandellas, between the 10th and 13th centuries, supported the arts and built temples out of sandstone.
• Over 80 temples once existed at the site, including Hindu temples for Shiva, Vishnu, and Surya, as well as Jain temples.
• Approximately 30 temples remain in Khajuraho today.
• Yashovarman, a Chandella leader, commissioned the Lakshmana temple to legitimize his rule, and his son Dhanga completed it in 954 CE.
• The central deity is Vishnu in his three-headed Vaikuntha form, located in the garba griha (inner womb chamber).
• The garba griha is the symbolic and physical core of the temple, designed for individualized worship.
• The Lakshmana Temple exemplifies Nagara style architecture, which includes a vimana shrine and a mandapa entry porch.
• Nagara temples feature a base platform and a sikhara superstructure.
• Devotees perform circumambulation, walking around the temple clockwise, viewing sculpted friezes depicting daily life and historical events.
• Deities are sculpted in niches on the temple's exterior wall.
• Erotic images of couples are found at the juncture of the vimana and mandapa, symbolizing the joining of these structures.
• The temple has four subsidiary shrines at each corner of the plinth, resembling miniature temples.
• Devotees pass through three mandapas before entering the vimana.
• Once inside, devotees circumambulate the shrine.

Additional Notes

• Mithuna figures appear on Hindu temples and Buddhist sites throughout South Asia, some scholars suggest erotic images were connected to Kapalika tantric practices prevalent at Khajuraho during Chandella rule.
• The Chausath Yogini Temple at Khajuraho is dedicated to the Hindu Goddess Durga.
• The original Vaikuntha image at the Lakshmana temple was politically significant, taken by Yashovarman from a former ruler.
• There are two main styles of Hindu temple architecture: Nagara (northern India) and Dravida (southern India).
• The base platform of a temple is sometimes called pitha and a flattened bulb-shaped topper known as amalaka is symbolic of abundance and growth.

The Taj Mahal

• Shah Jahan, the fifth Mughal ruler, commissioned the Taj Mahal after the death of his wife, Mumtaz Mahal.
• The Taj Mahal was referred to as the Luminous Tomb in Mughal texts.
• It is exceptional for its scale, gardens, ornamentation, and use of white marble.
• Sunni Muslims favor simple burials, but domed mausolea were built for Mughals before the Taj.
• Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal in Agra, a flourishing trade center on the Yamuna River.
• The entrance to the Taj Mahal complex includes a forecourt and a monumental gate of red sandstone.
• The Taj Mahal is aligned along a water channel with the complex running 1860 feet north-south and 1000 feet east-west.
• The white marble mausoleum is flanked by identical red sandstone buildings, one a mosque and the other for architectural balance.
• The marble structure has a bulbous dome and is surrounded by four minarets.
• The Taj's interior floor plan follows the hasht bishisht principle, alluding to the eight levels of paradise.
• The main chamber holds Mumtaz Mahal's cenotaph.
• Shah Jahan's cenotaph was placed beside hers after his death.
• Qur'anic verses and semi-precious stones (coral, onyx, carnelian, amethyst, lapis lazuli) adorn the Taj.
• The carved imagery is floral, reflecting paradise.
• The Taj blends Islamic traditions with indigenous styles, seen in the umbrella-shaped chhatris.
• The Taj Mahal's structure is white marble.
• Auxiliary buildings are red sandstone, possibly corresponding to Hindu principles where white represents purity and red represents the warrior class.
• The Taj Mahal includes a char bagh garden.
• The Taj Mahal appears centrally located when viewed from the Mahtab Bagh across the Yamuna River.
• Waterways and fountains are part of the garden.

Construction

• The finest marble was sourced from Makrarna, Rajasthan.
• Mir Abd Al-Karim was named lead architect, Abdul Haqq was the calligrapher, and Ustad Ahmad Lahauri was the supervisor.
• Mughal architectural principles were incorporated into the Taj design.

Symbolism

• The Taj Mahal is often called a "symbol of love".
• One theory suggests the Taj represents a Divine Throne, the seat of God on the Day of Judgment.
• Another view is that it represents a replica of a house of paradise, glorifying Mughal rule and the emperor.
• Shah Jahan was placed under house arrest at Agra Fort, able to view the Taj Mahal from a distance for eight years.

Threats

• The Taj Mahal was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983 and is currently overseen by the Archaeological Survey of India.
• Heavy tourist traffic, air pollution, and the drying up of the Yamuna River are major factors threatening the Taj Mahal.
• Air pollution discolors the exterior and causes acid rain.
• The Indian government designated the Taj Trapezium Zone to regulate emissions.
• There is a ban on auto traffic near the Taj Mahal.
• The Yamuna River has been partially dammed, affecting the structural integrity of the monument.
• UNESCO asserts that the physical fabric is in good condition and structural stability.