Beef Cattle Terminologies

• Meat obtained from aged cattle is beef
• Beef cattle are those primarily raised for beef

Terminologies

• Carcass: the whole body of a slaughtered animal (bovine, pig, sheep, goat, horse, donkey, or mule) after bleeding, evisceration, and removal of specific parts
• Dressing: removal of the head, hide or skin, viscera, genital organs, urinary bladder, and feet, up to the carpal and tarsal joints, including udders of lactating animals
• Fattening: feeding practice to accumulate fat in beef cattle during the finishing stage
• Feedlot: large-scale facility for intensive ruminant feeding to fatten animals before slaughter
• Lairage: holding ground for animals within 24 hours before slaughter
• Veal: meat from cattle or calves that are very young (around three months old)

Origin, Domestication, Population, and Distribution

• There are over 1.1 billion cattle worldwide
• Many are used for work or milk production, with beef production as a secondary benefit
• All dairy cattle are considered beef cattle, but not all beef cattle are dairy cattle
• Most cattle raised strictly for beef are in North and South America, Australia, and New Zealand
• 70% of the world's cattle population is in only 20 countries
• The cattle population is increasing more rapidly in tropical regions

Population Variation Reasons

• Religious and customary beliefs that prohibit eating cattle flesh
• India produces twice as much cattle as any other country, but eating cattle is illegal, and buffalo slaughter is restricted
• Countries such as China have large geographical areas but a small population-to-cattle ratio, resulting in limited per capita beef consumption
• Countries such as Finland possess a small geographical area with a high population-to-cattle ratio, leading to the export of animals
• Countries such as Switzerland import a considerable amount of beef they consume
• Climate significantly affects the distribution and production of cattle

Beef Cattle Breeds

• Over 800 breeds are recognized globally, some bred by humans for specialized uses
• These breeds are primarily used for their meat

Breeds of Tropics and Temperature Zones: Brangus

• Black, polled, early-maturing cattle
• Produces high-quality beef with even fat deposition in the muscle
• Small, fine bones and a high proportion of meat in the carcass
• Developed about a hundred years ago
• Selected in northeast Scotland to thrive and gain weight on a simple diet
• High carcass quality is passed to crossed progeny
• Closely associated with early maturity
• Compact, light-boned frame giving smaller joints, thickly covered with well-marbled muscle around 18 months of age
• High killing-out percentage when slaughtered before 2½ years old
• Characteristically black and hornless
• Small heads facilitate easy calving
• Used for specialized beef production by crossing with beef-type dams, also for beef production from dairy herd crossings

Brahman

• Developed in the US in the early 1900s
• Developed from four different Indian cattle breeds and some British-bred cattle
• Distinct large hump over the top of the shoulder and neck
• Loose flap of skin (dewlap) hanging from the neck
• Large, floppy ears
• Bulls weigh 1,600 to 2,200 pounds (800 to 1,100 kg), and cows weigh 1,000 to 1,400 pounds (500 to 700 kg)
• Calves weigh 60 to 65 pounds (30 to 33 kg) at birth
• Greater ability to withstand heat than European breeds
• Oily skin helps repel pest insects

Drought Master

• Tropical beef breed developed in North Queensland by interbreeding Brahman and British breeds
• The main breed was Beef Shorthorn during the early 1900s
• Good tick resistance to utilize the environment and pastures in a cost-effective manner to allow higher weight gains and fertility
• Medium to large size with good walking and foraging abilities coupled with lower nutritional requirements enabling them to retain condition and keep breeding, irrespective of prevailing conditions
• Short coat
• Red in color although colour variations can occur from golden honey to dark red
• Can be polled or horned
• Moderate hump
• Medium to large ears and an extended dewlap
• Red pigmentation protects from cancer eye

Simmentals (Bos taurus)

• Originated from Switzerland but now popular in other parts of Europe
• Dual-purpose breed
• Red in color with white markings on the head, belly, legs, and tail switch
• Large mature size, grow rapidly, and deposit fat at a later age than smaller breeds
• Bulls are useful for crossing with the dairy breeds Ayrshire, Guernsey, and Jersey
• Early maturing qualities improve the growth rate of their progeny out of slow-maturing cows; carcasses tend to have a higher muscle-to-bone ratio

Hereford

• Originated from Herefordshire, England
• Widely used in temperate areas for beef production
• Well-muscled, hardy breed
• Attractive and predominantly white-faced with underline and markings on a red body
• Trademarked the "white face" or "baldy" look among cattle producers
• A polled strain was developed in Canada and later in the US from mutants

Limousin

• Native to the south-central part of France
• Genetic source of larger weaning weights and muscle mass while maintaining relatively low birth weights
• Known for muscular build, feed efficiency, ease of management, and comparable calving ease
• Produce leaner cuts of beef making them a preferred breed in the modern market
• Golden-brown coloration
• High lean-to-fat-and-bone ratio

Charolais

• Beef cattle breed (Bos taurus) that originated in Charolais, near Charolles, France
• Raised for their meat
• Posses composite qualities when crossed with other breeds, notably Angus and Hereford
• Large and well-muscled
• Bulls roughly weigh up to 2,500 pounds (1,100 kilograms) and cows weigh up to 2,000 pounds
• The coat is almost pure white
• Tolerate heat well and show good weight gains on even mediocre pasturage

Beef Cattle Production System

• Systems in the tropics and subtropics vary from extremely primitive to relatively advanced and are not country-specific
• Influenced by ownership and geographical location, beef production systems are classified according to breeding, management, feeding practices, available feed resources, available markets, transport efficiency, and the animals’ age at sale

Classification of Beef Production

• Traditional (Extensive) Production System:
• Pastoralist
• Agro-pastoralist
• Improved Fattening System:
• Semi-intensive
• Intensive
• Commercial beef cattle production

Extensive Systems -Description

• Production is almost entirely on ranges using grass and herbage in areas where land is cheap, forage is inexpensive, or land is unsuitable for other agricultural activities.
• Seasonality of rainfall and forage production
• Results in considerable nutritional stress.
• Restricted forage growth results in high availability during the rainy season, followed by relatively rapid deterioration and a long period of stagnation
• Climate sometimes is so unfavorable land is infertile
• Period of plenty often is too short

Pastoralist System

• Economy predominantly based on herding animals such as cattle, goats, sheep, and camels
• Larger herds of cattle are grazed on communal/public land
• Cattle trek over long distances
• Does not use improved technology
• Comprises 70-80% of Africa's cattle population

Agro-Pastoralist Production System

• Systems are part of continuum pastoral nomadism and settled agriculture
• Limited migratory shifting cultivation systems and a much larger number of agro-pastoral or sedentary shifting cultivation systems
• Crop agriculture with extensive cattle production
• Agro-pastoralists own sizable pieces of land and practice integrated crop-livestock production
• Crop residues can be used when feed is scarce
• Adopts few, if any, improved technologies

Traditional Fattening System Methods

• Forage based
• By-product based

Forage Based System

• Suited to "cut-&-carry" feeding
• Most efficient way of using forage
• Farmers have complete control of the use of forage
• Increases livestock performance through higher forage production and higher rates of utilization
• Avoids forage wastage and spoilage by animals through treading
• Reduces internal parasitic problems, especially in wet areas
• Avoids damaging the pasture through overgrazing
• Helps maintain vegetative cover to control soil erosion

By-Product Based System

• Feasible in areas near main sources of agro-industrial by-products (molasses, cereal milling by-products, and oilseed meals)
• Grazing land is almost completely unavailable, and crop residues are only a significant roughage source
• Located close to the highest-priced market for finished animals and lies on the major trekking route to that market
• Recommended where oilseed cake is abundant and cheap and can be used as supplemental rations based on forage and crop residues

Improved Fattening System

• Characterized by high inputs and market orientation
• Farmers are adopting improved technology to optimize productivity
• Production includes:
• Semi-intensive
• Intensive
• Commercial beef cattle production

Intensive Beef Production System

• System that either rears or fattens cattle for their whole life out in the field on pasture and other forage crops
• Animals are managed at some stage in their life under confinement, often in specially constructed buildings
• Leads to more expensive beef production
• Emphasis is put on producing quality beef that can be sold at a high price
• The economics of intensive production depend on:
• The type and availability of cattle
• The cost and availability of by-product feeds and/or the cost of intensifying pasture or fodder crop production
• The cost of suitable infrastructure
• The level of managerial expertise in feedlot or pasture and forage production
• The price of beef and whether there is a local or export demand for quality beef
• The animal disease situation

Semi-Intensive Fattening System

• All cattle reared in the tropics are included
• The system is characterized by:
• Relatively small-size holdings
• Use of cattle primarily for work purposes or using old and culled milking cows for meat production
• Emphasis on the use of agricultural and industrial waste products and cultivated browse as feeds rather than on pasture and/or range

General features of the system

• Cattle are triple-purpose
• Feeding is often haphazard, and management is poor
• Farmers typically do not understand the value of pasture/forage

Commercial Beef Cattle Production

• Can be broadly classified into three programs:
• Cow-Calf program
• Stocker (grower) program
• Fattening (finishing) program

Cow-Calf Program/Phase

• Beef calves are typically born in cow-calf operations
• This operation involves breeding cows using bulls or artificial insemination, conception, gestation, birth of the calf, and lactation periods until weaning the calf from the cow
• Calves remain with their mothers for the first several months of life on farms or ranches
• Cattle graze large pastures in herds within sight of their mothers
• Calves are weaned from their mothers when they are 6-12 months old
• Bull calves are typically castrated after weaning
• Weaned male calves (steers) may graze until around one year old (yearlings) and then be sold to a cattle feeder or stocker/backgrounder, who will prepare the animal for finishing in a feedlot

Stocker/Grower Program/Phase

• Once beef young stocks have been weaned, rearing is carried out within a system that best suits the breed/genetic make-up of the animals
• Calves are usually fed on grassland until they weigh approximately 750 to 800 lbs live weight, when they are called stocker cattle
• Depending on feed availability, weaned calves may be placed directly into a feedlot for growing and finishing, skipping the grassland phase

Fattening/Finishing Phase

• Important stage in beef production
• Goal is to achieve the desired finish to the animal (condition as presented at slaughter)
• Stocker calves are placed in a confinement feedlot for about 90 to 120 days
• The animal may gain an additional 180 kg during 3-4 months in the feedlot
• Slaughter ages of beef cattle depend on diet, breed, and sex

Feeding of Beef Cattle

• The main objective of any livestock industry is to convert feeds, which are either inedible for humans or surplus to immediate requirements into animal products
• Major constituents of feed for farm animals originate from plants, plant byproducts, and animal sources such as fishmeal and milk
• Feed for livestock may be classified into two types: Roughage and Concentrates

Roughage Feeds

• High in fiber and low in TDN
• Contain >18% CF when dry

Concentrate Feeds

• Low in fiber and high in TDN
• Contain <18% CF when dry

Types of Concentrate

• Grain feeds: Corn, oats, barley, grain sorghum, wheat
• Supplement feeds: Protein feeds, minerals, and vitamins

Mineral Feeds

• Used to provide the mineral needs of the animal
• Types: Macro and Micro Minerals

Vitamin Supplements

• Used to provide necessary vitamins in the ration

Byproduct Feeds

• Milling and brewing byproducts used in feeding include wheat bran, rice bran, molasses, brewer's grain, beet pulp, malt sprouts, whey, etc

Feed Components

• Carbohydrates
• Lipids (Fats & Oils)
• Protein
• Minerals
• Vitamins
• Water

Starting cattle on feed

• Cattle producers try to put cattle on full feed of grain quickly
• Problems can result from transitioning cattle too quickly
• Can begin with a ration containing 50% grain
• Gradually increase the intake to full feed.
• Adjustments to grain intake need to be made slowly to allow the rumen time to adapt
• The proportion of grain accepted depends on many factors. Pen size, feeder space, weather, diseases, size, and age
• Table 1 includes a suggested schedule for adjusting cattle to high grain diets

Schedule for Adjusting Cattle on High-Grain Diets

Nutrient Requirements

• Requirements for beef cattle depend on age, rate of gain, calving date, and lactation status
• Nutritional requirement of bulls depends on age and extent of use for breeding

Feeds

• Intended as finishing feeds judged primarily for their carbohydrate content and total digestibility
• Protein, mineral, and vitamin content is also important to determine the amount of other concentrates needed to balance the ration
• Mineral and vitamin concentrates are measured in terms of essential minerals and vitamins
• the value of feed in a ration depends on how well the ration is balanced
• Beef cattle need feed to aid with maintenance, growth, reproduction, and lactation

Ration formulation

• A process of combining different feed ingredients in proportions necessary to provide the proper amount of nutrients needed at a particular stage of production
• Development of nutritionally adequate rations that will be eaten to aid production at a reasonable cost requires knowledge about nutrients, feedstuffs, and animals
• The ration should be palatable and should not cause any serious digestive disturbance or toxic effects to the animal
• Needed information to formulate the ration:
• Feed resources available
• Chemical composition of the feeds
• Weight, sex, breed, species, age, production status of the animal
• Purpose of animal feeding
• Nutrient requirement of the animal

Ration Formulation Methods

• Provide the required balanced nutrients at the least possible cost
• Square Method
• Simultaneous Equation Method
• Two-by-Two Matrix Method
• Trial-and-error Method
• Linear Programming (LP)

Pearson Square Method

• A simple and easy-to-follow method
• Satisfies only one nutrient requirement and uses only two feed ingredients
• Level of nutrient computed should be intermediate between nutrient concentrations of the two feed ingredients being used

Beef Cattle and Beef Products Marketing

• The efforts of farmers to produce animals with good carcass and meat quality may be wasted if they are handled in less than optimal ways before slaughter
• Pre-slaughter handling affecting quality is therefore increasingly recognized
• Precautions during transportation to minimize stress and injury
• Cattle are carefully loaded and unloaded into trailers that are specially designed to avoid injury and strain
• Cattle are moved inside packing plants in a quiet and orderly manner
• On the farm, animals may be individually selected, drafted
• Groups of marketable animals may be made up from different rearing pens
• Transportation is nowadays by road vehicles, however railways were important in the past
• Ventilation in vehicles is important, particularly when carrying stock at high ambient temperatures

Live Animal Marketing

• Animals can be transported on the hoof, by road, by rail, or by air
• Movement on foot: Driving cattle to the market is economical for short distances
• Water-point spacing to manage transport well:
• Indigenous cattle: 20-25 km
• Finished exotic or crossbred cattle: No more than 8km intervals
• Grazing or conserved forage should also be available en route
• Rail transport effects saving on maintenance and handling charges, tolls and other incidental expenses as well as form shrinkage and deaths
• During rail transport, loss from shrinkage may be as high as 10 percent
• If single-sex, polled, and indigenous cattle are provided with bedding, they will suffer the least bruising

Road Trasnport

• More popular mode of transporting cattle
• Economical as the truck may otherwise return empty
• May be sent by truck if their value is above average
• Higher bruise risk

Cattle Markets in Ethiopia

• Function at three levels: primary, secondary, and terminal markets
• Sometimes a nominal fourth level, at the farm gate, is present
• Primary markets: Village level markets with a supply of <500 head of cattle/week where primary producers sell to small traders, farmers, or consumers
• Markets are not fenced, have no scales, and no feeds or watering facilities
• Purchasing is done informally
• Secondary markets: Trader and butcher dominated markets with 500-1,000 head/week
• Consisting of finished, breeding, and draught stock; located in regional capitals
• Serves local consumers but mainly feeds the terminal markets; also supplies live animal exporters and meat processors
• Terminal markets: Located in large urban centers with large volume.
• Traders and butchers dominate these markets
• Average volume exceeds 1,000 head/week Supply of livestock is conveyed thru routes by traders and/or producers

Marketing System in Ethiopia

• Poor and lacks information, transportation facilities
• Problem related to livestock diseases and the absence of well-equipped export markets
• Cattle prices drop during droughts and peak during the holidays
• Butchery owners control the meat market
• They are the most powerful group in the cattle marketing chain being followed by Middlemen

Management of Beef Cattle - Facilities

• Cattle crush: Used for restraining animals for vaccinations, spraying, drenching, dehorning, insemination, pregnancy diagnosis, and loading onto trucks
• Isolation pen
• Calf pens: Equipped with a feed box, a hayrack, and watering facilities
• Loading and unloading ramp: Every cattle operation needs a loading chute
• Feed trough: Troughs need to be 45-60 cm wide and 30-45 cm deep, with 60cm from the ground
• Water trough: Long enough to provide drinking space
• House

Management Techniques

• Objectionable for animals on commercial herds due to inflicting injuries to themselves or the farm attendant
• Makes animals more difficult to handle
• Prevents self-defense
• Calves should be dehorned between 2-4 weeks of age.
• Advantages of Dehorning:
• Prevention of severe bruise
• Make cattle feeding convenient
• Enables a large volume of animals could be trucked, feed, and housed

Methods of Dehorning

• Using chemicals (KOH or NaOH) and applying on clipped hair around the horn buds and is protected by jelly
• Saws are an option for older calves
• Electric dehorner (only used on calves under 5 months of age)
• Elastrator: A rubber ring is stretched over the horn for small horns from 6cm to -15cm of height
• Selecting and breeding the polled breed

Treatment after Dehorning

• Application of a fly repellent to the wound to aid in disinfecting it

Castration of Bull Calves

• Making of animal unable to reproduce by interrupting test function
• Performed purely due to economic reasons
• Results in more balanced balance between both the fore and hind-quarters
• Improves texture, tenderness and flavor of beef
• Makes animal quieter and easier to handle
• Aids weight gain
• Prevents undesirable secondary sex characteristics
• High growth and feed conversion rates are better with bulls than steers

Methods of Castration

• Bloodless Castrator/Burdizzo Pincers
  • crushing the spermatic cords and associated blood vessels
  • most common method of castration in society
• Open Incision (Emasculator)
  • incision made on in scrotum and the testes is pulled away
• Rubber Ring or Elastrator
  • applying a ring in scrotum to stop blood circulation

Branding and Marking and Identification

• Process of destroying hide pigmentation and damaging hair follicles
• It is used to identify animals
• Hot iron branding and freez branding

Requirements For Branding

• Age of the animal
• Hide color -Time of the year
• Method of application of device
• Type of tool used

Health Mgmt

• Common modifiable diseases in beef cattle include:
• Anthrax
• Blackleg
• Brucellosis
• Foot-and-mouth disease
• Bovine tuberculosis
• Rabies
• Antrax - Treated by vaccination animal before season of out break
• Blackleg - Treatment is vaccine

Constraints of Beef Production

• Inadequate feeds and water supply
• Poor feeding quality because of high fiber
• Prevalence of Animal Diseases
• trypanosomiasis
• Poor infrastructure and marketing
• Social values attached to traditional cattle keeping
• Lack of Credit Facilities
• Lack of entrepreneurship
• Land-Use Pattern and Tenure
• Communal ownership of land