BCA-301 Object-Oriented Programming Using C++

Inheritance is a mechanism in object-oriented programming where one class can inherit properties and methods (code and data) from another class. This promotes code reusability and helps build relationships between objects.

A friend function allows a non-member function to access private and protected members of a class to which it is declared a friend. The class grants specific access rights to the friend function, allowing it to interact with the class's internal data. Friend functions enhance code reusability and can be used to perform operations that involve multiple classes or even classes where the primary class has limited direct access to members.

Encapsulation is the bundling of data (member variables) and methods (member functions) that operate on that data into a single unit, typically a class. This practice enforces data hiding, restricting access to the internal data. In C++ , encapsulation is achieved through the use of access specifiers (private, protected and public) in classes. The private specifier restricts access to data outside the class, while public allows access. protected is used to define members that can be accessed by the base class and derived classes.

<p>Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm that uses objects and classes to structure code, focusing on data and behavior. Objects are instances of classes, and they encapsulate data and methods that operate on that data. Key concepts in OOP include encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism. Whereas, Object-based programming is a concept that focuses on objects, but it may not fully implement all OOP features. It usually relies on some object-oriented elements, such as data hiding, but might not necessarily embrace inheritance or polymorphism in the way OOP strictly does.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Library functions: <code>cout</code>, <code>cin</code>, <code>sqrt</code> Preprocessor directives: <code>#include</code>, <code>#define</code>, <code>#ifdef</code></p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Access specifiers in C++ classes control how members (data and functions) can interacted with within the class itself, derived classes, and from outside of the class. The main access specifiers are <code>public</code>, <code>protected</code>, and <code>private</code>.</p> <p><code>public</code> members can be accessed anywhere, even from outside the class. <code>protected</code> members can be accessed within the class and derived classes, but not directly from outside the class. <code>private</code> members are only accessible within the class itself. This makes them private and hidden.</p> <p>Having different access specifiers in a class allows us to control visibility, modularity, and maintainability of code. We want to limit direct external manipulation of members, enforce data hiding and enable reuse of data and functions by promoting code modularity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A static data member is a member variable declared as <code>static</code> within a class. It belongs to the class itself, rather than individual objects created from the class. This means that there's only one copy of the static member shared by all objects of the class. Consider a class called <code>Counter</code> with a static data member <code>count</code> to track how many object instances are created. Static data members are initialized outside the class definition but within a namespace scope. Static data members are declared within the class, but initialized outside the class definition. They are useful for storing data that needs to be shared by all objects of the class, like counters, global variables, and settings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The <code>for</code> loop provides a concise way to iterate a specific number of times. It follows this syntax:</p> <p><code>for (initialization; condition; increment/decrement) { code to be executed }</code></p> <p><strong>Initialization</strong>: This step initializes the loop control variable, executed once at the start of the loop. <strong>Condition</strong>: This condition is checked before each iteration. If the condition is true, the loop continues. <strong>Increment/Decrement</strong>: This updates the loop control variable after each iteration, changing its value. <strong>Code to be executed</strong>: This block of code is run within each iteration of the loop.</p> <p>Flow diagram:<br /> [Diagram would be represented here.]</p> <p>Example:</p> <pre><code class="language-c++">#include &lt;iostream&gt; using namespace std; int main() { for (int i = 1; i &lt;= 5; i++) { // Loop 5 times cout &lt;&lt; i &lt;&lt; &quot; &quot;; } return 0; } </code></pre> Signup and view all the answers

<p><code>new</code> and <code>delete</code> are operators in C++ that are responsible for managing memory allocation and deallocation dynamically. <code>new</code> is responsible for allocating memory for objects in the heap, whereas <code>delete</code> releases memory that is no longer needed. Using these operators eliminates the need for manual memory management during compilation. When you use <code>new</code>, it determines space required by an object and allocates the right amount of memory from the heap. <code>delete</code> reclaims memory that was taken from the heap. The <code>delete</code> operator frees the memory and makes it available for reuse.</p> <p>Example:</p> <pre><code class="language-c++"> int *ptr = new int; // allocate memory *ptr = 10; // store an integer value delete ptr; // deallocate the memory </code></pre> Signup and view all the answers

<pre><code class="language-c++">#include &lt;iostream&gt; using namespace std; class MyClass { public: int myNum; string myString; MyClass(int num, string str) { myNum = num; myString = str; } void display() { cout &lt;&lt; &quot;MyNum: &quot; &lt;&lt; myNum &lt;&lt; endl; cout &lt;&lt; &quot;MyString: &quot; &lt;&lt; myString &lt;&lt; endl; } }; int main() { MyClass myObject(10, &quot;Hello&quot;); myObject.display(); return 0; } </code></pre> Signup and view all the answers

<p>There are numerous types of inheritance in C++:</p> <ul> <li><strong>Single Inheritance</strong>: A derived class inherits from only one base class.</li> <li><strong>Multiple Inheritance</strong>: A derived class inherits from more than one base class.</li> <li><strong>Hierarchical Inheritance</strong>: Multiple derived classes inherit from a single base class.</li> <li><strong>Multilevel Inheritance</strong>: A derived class inherits from a base class, and another derived class inherits from the first derived class.</li> <li><strong>Hybrid Inheritance</strong>: A combination of multiple inheritance types.</li> </ul> <p>Example:</p> <pre><code class="language-c++">#include &lt;iostream&gt; using namespace std; // Base Class class Animal { public: void speak() { cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Animal Sound&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; } }; // Single Inheritance class Dog : public Animal { public: void bark() { cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Woof!&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; } }; // Multiple Inheritance class Cat : public Animal, public Mammal { public: void meow() { cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Meow&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; } }; int main() { Dog d; // Single Inheritance d.speak(); // Outputs: Animal Sound d.bark(); // Outputs: Woof! Cat c; // Multiple Inheritance c.speak(); // Outputs: Animal Sound c.meow(); // Outputs: Meow return 0; } </code></pre> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Abstract classes in C++ are classes that cannot be directly instantiated (you can't create an object of the abstract class). They serve as a blueprint for other classes, often containing virtual functions. A virtual function is a function declared in the base class, but its implementation is expected to be defined by derived classes (overridden). Abstract classes are useful when you need to define common behaviors for derived classes, but you don't want to force every derived class to implement the same way.</p> <p>Virtual base classes resolve issues when multiple inheritance involves common inheritance from the same base class. They help avoid ambiguities in the inheritance structure.</p> <p>For example, let's say we have a <code>Shape</code> abstract class with a <code>draw()</code> virtual function. Specific shapes like <code>Circle</code> and <code>Rectangle</code> are derived from this abstract class. Each derived class implements its own <code>draw()</code> function, providing a specific drawing method for that type of shape. To create a <code>Square</code>, a new class inherits from the <code>Rectangle</code> class, and it would inherit properties and methods from <code>Rectangle</code>. In this example, the <code>Shape</code> class serves as a template for drawing actions. Each derived class implements the <code>draw()</code> function differently because different shapes are drawn differently.</p> <p><strong>Example:</strong></p> <pre><code class="language-c++">#include &lt;iostream&gt; using namespace std; // Abstract Base Class class Shape { public: virtual void draw() = 0; // Pure Virtual Function }; // Derived Classes class Circle : public Shape { public: void draw() override { cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Drawing a Circle&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; } }; class Rectangle : public Shape { public: void draw() override { cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Drawing a Rectangle&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; } }; int main() { // Shape s; // Error: Cannot instantiate an abstract class Circle c; // Instantiate the Circle c.draw(); // Outputs: Drawing a Circle Rectangle r; // Instantiate the Rectangle r.draw(); // Outputs: Drawing a Rectangle return 0; } </code></pre> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Nesting of classes in C++ refers to the ability to define one class within the definition of another. This results in an inner class and an outer class. The inner class becomes a member of the outer class, but it only exists within the scope of the outer class (it's not an independent class). Friend functions allow a function to access members of a class, even private members, even though it's not a member of the class itself. This gives the friend function special access rights to the class's internals. For example, suppose you have a <code>Person</code> class and an <code>Address</code> class, where the <code>Address</code> class may have a <code>private</code> member to store the house number. If you want a <code>Person</code> to store or access the <code>Address</code> data, the <code>Person</code> class might declare the <code>Address</code> class as a friend so that <code>Person</code> methods can access private members of <code>Address</code> when needed.</p> <p>The key uses of friend functions:</p> <ul> <li><strong>Enhanced Access:</strong> Direct access to private or protected members.</li> <li><strong>Collaboration:</strong> Sharing functionality between classes when normal member functions might be insufficient.</li> <li><strong>Improving Code Structure:</strong> It can create a cleaner structure by separating functionality that's not inherently part of the class but still needs access to private data.</li> </ul> <p>Friend functions are powerful, but they can make code more challenging to maintain. They break encapsulation, so use them sparingly and consider alternatives like other design patterns or public interface functions when possible.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Header files are pre-compiled parts of C++ that contain definitions and declarations. Some common types of header files are:</p> <ul> <li><code>iostream</code>: Provides input/output operations, including <code>cin</code>, <code>cout</code>.</li> <li><code>string</code>: Handles string manipulation.</li> <li><code>vector</code>: Allows working with dynamic arrays (collections that can change in size).</li> <li><code>cmath</code>: Contains mathematical functions like <code>sqrt</code>, <code>pow</code>.</li> <li><code>algorithm</code>: Offers functions for sorting, searching, manipulating collections.</li> </ul> <p>Data types in C++ are used to store and manipulate data. They have specific sizes, memory allocation, and functionalities. Some key types are:</p> <ul> <li><strong>Fundamental Data Types:</strong> Base types like <code>int</code>, <code>float</code>, <code>double</code>, <code>char</code>, <code>bool</code> for basic data representations.</li> <li><strong>Derived Data Types:</strong> Built upon fundamental types such as arrays, structures, pointers, classes.</li> <li><strong>User-Defined Data Types:</strong> Classes and structures are custom data types, organized and designed according to specific needs.</li> </ul> <p>Operators in C++ are symbols that perform specific operations on data. Some standard operators include:</p> <ul> <li><strong>Arithmetic Operators:</strong> <code>+, -, *, /, %</code></li> <li><strong>Relational Operators:</strong> <code>==, !=, &lt;, &gt;, &lt;=, &gt;=</code> (used for comparisons)</li> <li><strong>Logical Operators:</strong> <code>&amp;&amp;, ||, !</code> (used for combining conditions)</li> <li><strong>Bitwise Operators:</strong> <code>&amp;, |, ^, ~, &lt;&lt;, &gt;&gt;</code> (used for performing binary operations on bits)</li> <li><strong>Assignment Operators:</strong> <code>=</code> (to assign value)</li> <li><strong>Compound Assignment Operators:</strong> <code>+=, -=, *=, /=, %=, &amp;=, |=, ^=, &lt;&lt;=, &gt;&gt;= </code> (for combined assignment and operations)</li> <li><strong>Member Access Operators:</strong> <code>.</code>, <code>-&gt;</code> for accessing members of classes or objects.</li> <li>**Other Operators: <code>?:</code> (ternary operator), <code>sizeof</code>, <code>&amp;</code> (address-of operator), <code>*</code> (dereference operator), <code>[]</code> (array subscript operator) <code>()</code> (function call operator)`</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Polymorphism means &quot;many forms&quot; in object-oriented programming. It allows objects of different classes to be treated as objects of a common base class, enabling flexibility in code structure and design. C++ supports two primary types of polymorphism:</p> <ul> <li><strong>Compile-time Polymorphism:</strong> Achieved through function overloading, where functions with the same name but different parameters are defined.</li> <li><strong>Runtime Polymorphism:</strong> This is achieved through virtual functions. When declared as virtual, the specific implementation will be determined at runtime, depending on the actual type of the object being referenced.</li> </ul> <p><strong>Example Code:</strong></p> <pre><code class="language-c++">#include &lt;iostream&gt; using namespace std; // Base Class class Shape { public: virtual void draw() = 0; // Pure Virtual Function }; // Derived Classes class Circle : public Shape { public: void draw() override { cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Drawing a Circle&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; } }; class Rectangle : public Shape { public: void draw() override { cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Drawing a Rectangle&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; } }; int main() { Shape* shapePtr; Circle c; // Create a Circle object Rectangle r; // Create a Rectangle object shapePtr = &amp;c; shapePtr-&gt;draw(); // Outputs: Drawing a Circle shapePtr = &amp;r; shapePtr-&gt;draw(); // Outputs: Drawing a Rectangle return 0; } </code></pre> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Inheritance is a fundamental concept in object-oriented programming (OOP). It allows one class to inherit properties and methods from another class. This means that the inheriting class (derived class) automatically acquires the characteristics of the class it inherits from (base class). Inheritance helps promote code reusability, establish relationships between objects, and improve code maintainability.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Data hiding is a core principle in object-oriented programming (OOP). It involves preventing direct access to the internal data of a class from outside that class. To achieve data hiding, you use access specifiers (like <code>private</code> and <code>protected</code>) in class definitions. The ability to control how data is accessed enhances the maintainability and security of the object-oriented code. Data hiding makes classes more modular and independent. It restricts modifications to the class's internal data, making it more resistant to errors and easier to maintain over time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p><strong>Call by Value:</strong> In call by value, a copy of the argument passed to the function is created. The function works on this copy, and any changes made to the argument within the function do not affect the original value in the caller's scope. This approach maintains data integrity and limits unexpected side effects but may require additional memory for creating copies.<br /> <strong>Call by Reference:</strong> In call by reference, a reference to the original argument (not a copy) is passed to the function. This means that any changes made to the argument within the function directly modify the original value. This approach saves memory but can lead to unpredictable side effects if the function modifies the original value without intention.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Aggregation is a type of relationship in object-oriented programming where an object (the whole) &quot;has-a&quot; relationship with one or more other objects (the parts). This means that the whole object <code>owns</code> or <code>contains</code> the parts, and the parts might be managed individually. In aggregation, the parts can exist independently of the whole object, but they are usually associated with that object. Here's a real-world example: a building is a whole object. The rooms (which are the parts) are part of the building and cannot exist individually without the building, but if the building were gone, the rooms could exist individually.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Default arguments provide flexibility in function definitions by setting default values for parameters. These default values are used when a function call omits those parameters. Example:</p> <pre><code class="language-c++">void greet(string name = &quot;user&quot;) { cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Hello, &quot; &lt;&lt; name &lt;&lt; endl; } int main() { greet(); // Outputs: Hello, user greet(&quot;Alice&quot;); // Outputs: Hello, Alice return 0; } </code></pre> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Data hiding is a core principle of encapsulation in object-oriented programming, emphasizing controlled access to class data. It involves restricting direct access to the internal members (data and functions) of a class from outside the class. To achieve data hiding, programmers use the <code>private</code> and <code>protected</code> access specifiers. The <code>private</code> specifier makes members inaccessible from outside the class, but they can still be manipulated by the class's own methods. The <code>protected</code> specifier makes members inaccessible to the outside world, but they are accessible to the class itself and to derived classes. This controlled access protects the data's integrity, ensures consistency, and promotes encapsulation. Data hiding promotes modularity and is crucial for maintaining the internal state of a class without undue external influence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Inline functions in C++ are functions where the compiler tries to directly replace the function call with the function's body during compilation. The keyword <code>inline</code> is a hint to the compiler. The function's code is inserted at the point of the call, avoiding the overhead of a function call (which might involve saving registers, setting up a frame, jumping to the function, and then returning). Inline functions are most beneficial when they're small, relatively simple, frequently called, and don't have complex control flow. If the inline function gets too large or complex, the compiler might not inline it (it'll determine based on factors like optimization level or compiler-specific behavior).</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p><strong>Function Overloading:</strong> When a function name is used for multiple functions with the same name but different argument lists (different number of arguments, types of arguments, or order of arguments). C++ uses overloading to provide multiple actions for the same function name. The compiler selects the right version of the function at compile time based on the argument types and their number in the function call.</p> <p><strong>Function Overriding:</strong> Applies to virtual functions and inheritance in OOP. With virtual functions, you can create functions that can be redefined (overridden) by derived classes. Overriding lets these derived classes provide a specific implementation of the virtual function that is different from the base class implementation. At runtime, the correct implementation of the virtual function is determined based on the actual type of the object that's being used, making the execution dynamic and adaptable.</p> <p><strong>Key Differences:</strong> Overloading occurs at compile time, while overriding happens at runtime. Overloading uses distinct functions with different signatures, while overriding focuses on modifying the behavior of virtual functions in derived classes.</p> <p><strong>Example:</strong></p> <pre><code class="language-c++">#include &lt;iostream&gt; using namespace std; class Shape { public: virtual void draw() = 0; void print() { cout &lt;&lt; &quot;This is a shape&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; } }; class Circle : public Shape { public: void draw() override { cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Drawing a Circle&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; } }; class Rectangle : public Shape { public: void draw() override { cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Drawing a Rectangle&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; } }; int main() { Circle c; // Create a Circle object Rectangle r; // Create a Rectangle object c.draw(); // Output: Drawing a Circle r.draw(); // Output: Drawing a Rectangle Shape* shapePtr = &amp;c; // Create a Shape pointer shapePtr-&gt;draw(); // Output: Drawing a Circle shapePtr = &amp;r; // Assign the pointer to a Rectangle shapePtr-&gt;draw(); // Output: Drawing a Rectangle return 0; } </code></pre> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Exception handling is a way of dealing with unexpected events or errors that occur during program execution. It prevents the program from crashing and gracefully handles errors, allowing it to continue running. C++ provides keywords (<code>try</code>, <code>catch</code>, and <code>throw</code>) to handle exceptions.</p> <ul> <li><strong><code>try</code> block:</strong> Contains code that might cause exceptions.</li> <li><strong><code>throw</code> statement:</strong> Raises an exception if an error is detected inside the <code>try</code> block.</li> <li><strong><code>catch</code> block:</strong> Handles specific exceptions that were thrown. Multiple <code>catch</code> blocks can be used to handle different types of exceptions. If no <code>catch</code> block matches the exception, the program might crash unless there is a global handler in place.</li> </ul> <p><strong>Example Code:</strong></p> <pre><code class="language-c++">#include &lt;iostream&gt; using namespace std; int main() { int num1, num2, result; try { cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Enter two numbers: &quot;; cin &gt;&gt; num1 &gt;&gt; num2; if (num2 == 0) { throw &quot;Division by zero error!&quot;; // Raise an exception } result = num1 / num2; cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Result: &quot; &lt;&lt; result &lt;&lt; endl; } catch (const char* err) { // Catch the specific exception cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Error: &quot; &lt;&lt; err &lt;&lt; endl; } return 0; } </code></pre> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Object-oriented programming (OOP) offers advantages over structured programming in terms of code organization, modularity, and reusability. OOP promotes encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism, leading to benefits such as:</p> <ul> <li><strong>Modularity:</strong> Code is organized into objects and classes, making it easier to break down complex problems into smaller, manageable units.</li> <li><strong>Reusability:</strong> Inheritance facilitates code reuse, allowing you to build upon existing classes and create new classes with inherited functionality.</li> <li><strong>Maintainability:</strong> OOP promotes code maintainability because changes to one part of the system are less likely to impact other parts. Modifications can be confined to specific classes.</li> <li><strong>Data Hiding:</strong> Encapsulation allows you to protect data within classes and control access to it, leading to more secure and reliable code.</li> <li><strong>Polymorphism:</strong> Different objects can be treated as instances of their common base class, allowing for more flexible and adaptable code.<br /> <strong>Features of OOP:</strong></li> <li><strong>Abstraction:</strong> Defining essential characteristics (data and behavior) while hiding unnecessary details.</li> <li><strong>Encapsulation:</strong> Combining data and methods into a single unit, promoting controlled access to data.</li> <li><strong>Inheritance:</strong> A mechanism for creating new classes that derive properties and methods from existing classes.</li> <li><strong>Polymorphism:</strong> Allows objects of different types to be treated as objects of a common base class, enabling flexible code structure.</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Polymorphism, meaning &quot;many forms,&quot; is a fundamental concept in object-oriented programming. It allows objects of different classes to respond to the same message or method call in different ways. This flexibility greatly enhances code adaptability and reusability. C++ supports two main types of polymorphism:</p> <ol> <li> <p><strong>Compile-Time Polymorphism (Function Overloading):</strong> This form of polymorphism is determined at compile time by the compiler. It involves having multiple functions with the same name but different parameters (in terms of number, type, or order). The compiler chooses the appropriate function to call based on the arguments provided.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Runtime Polymorphism (Virtual Functions):</strong> Here, the polymorphism happens during runtime. It involves using virtual functions that can be overridden by derived classes. When a virtual function is called through a base class pointer or reference, the actual implementation of the function is resolved at runtime based on the type of the object being pointed to.</p> </li> </ol> <p>Example:</p> <pre><code class="language-c++">#include &lt;iostream&gt; using namespace std; class Shape { public: virtual void draw() = 0; // Pure Virtual Function }; class Circle : public Shape { public: void draw() override { cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Drawing a Circle&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; } }; class Rectangle : public Shape { public: void draw() override { cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Drawing a Rectangle&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; } }; int main() { Shape* shapePtr; Circle c; Rectangle r; shapePtr = &amp;c; shapePtr-&gt;draw(); // Outputs: Drawing a Circle (Runtime Polymorphism) shapePtr = &amp;r; shapePtr-&gt;draw(); // Outputs: Drawing a Rectangle (Runtime Polymorphism) return 0; } </code></pre> Signup and view all the answers

<ol> <li> <p><strong>Constructors:</strong> Special member functions that initialize objects when they are created. Their name must match the class name, and they do not have a return type. Constructor's primary purpose is to ensure that objects are in a valid state when they are first created, assigning appropriate values to their data members.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Inheritance:</strong> A foundational concept in OOP that describes how one class can inherit properties (data) and methods (functions) from another class. This promotes code reuse, establishing hierarchical relationships between classes and facilitating the model of real-world concepts.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Aggregation:</strong> A type of relationship in OOP where one object (the whole) contains or &quot;has-a&quot; relationship with one or more other objects (the parts). The whole object owns or manages the parts, but the parts can exist independently of the whole. This is a commonly used modeling pattern in object-oriented programming.</p> </li> </ol> <p><strong>Example for Constructors:</strong></p> <pre><code class="language-c++">class Student { public: string name; int age; Student(string n, int a) { // Constructor name = n; age = a; } }; int main() { Student student1(&quot;Alice&quot;, 18); // Constructor call Student student2(&quot;Bob&quot;, 19); return 0; } </code></pre> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A pointer variable (or simply a pointer) is a special variable that stores the memory address of another variable. Instead of holding the actual value of a variable, it holds the location in memory where that value is stored.</p> <p><strong>Applications of Pointer Variables:</strong></p> <ul> <li><strong>Dynamic Memory Allocation:</strong> To create and manage memory during runtime using <code>new</code> and <code>delete</code> operators.</li> <li><strong>Efficient Memory Management:</strong> Pointers are used to optimize memory usage and manipulate memory directly for performance.</li> <li><strong>Pass by Reference:</strong> Pointers are often used to pass arguments to functions by reference, which allows modifying the original variables passed.</li> <li><strong>Data Structures:</strong> Pointers are fundamental in building and managing data structures like linked list, trees, and graphs.</li> </ul> <p><strong>Advantages:</strong></p> <ul> <li><strong>Efficient Memory Usage:</strong> Pointers can access data directly in memory, leading to potential performance improvements.</li> <li><strong>Dynamic Data Allocation:</strong> Pointers enable dynamic allocation of memory at runtime, providing flexibility in how memory is managed.</li> <li><strong>Data Sharing:</strong> Multiple pointers can reference the same memory location, enabling efficient data sharing.</li> </ul> <p><strong>Disadvantages:</strong></p> <ul> <li><strong>Complexity:</strong> Pointers can be tricky to work with due to their low-level nature. Incorrect usage might lead to memory leaks or other runtime errors.</li> <li><strong>Security:</strong> Potential vulnerabilities exist if pointers are not used carefully.</li> <li><strong>Portability:</strong> Pointers operations can be platform dependent, making the code less portable.</li> </ul> <p><strong>Pointer Operations:</strong></p> <ul> <li><strong>Dereferencing:</strong> Using the <code>*</code> operator to access the data at the address stored in the pointer.</li> <li><strong>Address-of Operator:</strong> Using the <code>&amp;</code> operator to get the memory address of a variable.</li> <li><strong>Pointer Arithmetic:</strong> Performing basic arithmetic operations (<code>+</code>, <code>-</code>) on pointers to move them within a data structure.</li> </ul> <p><strong>Basic Data Types (Stored in Pointers):</strong> <code>int</code>, <code>char</code>, <code>float</code>, or <code>double</code>.</p> <p><strong>Derived Data Types (Stored in Pointers):</strong> Arrays, structures, classes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Inheritance is a mechanism in object-oriented programming where one class (derived class) inherits properties and methods from another class (base class). This allows for code reusability and a hierarchical relationship between classes.</p> <p>The types of inheritance supported in C++ are:</p> <ol> <li>Single inheritance: A derived class inherits from only one base class.</li> <li>Multiple inheritance: A derived class inherits from multiple base classes.</li> <li>Multilevel inheritance: A derived class inherits from a base class, which itself inherits from another base class.</li> <li>Hierarchical inheritance: Multiple derived classes inherit from a single base class.</li> </ol> <p>Here's a C++ program demonstrating single inheritance:</p> <pre><code class="language-c++">#include &lt;iostream&gt; using namespace std; // Base class class Animal { public: void speak() { cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Animal making a sound...&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; } }; // Derived class inheriting from Animal class Dog : public Animal { public: void bark() { cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Woof!&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; } }; int main() { Dog myDog; // Create an object of Dog myDog.speak(); // Access the speak() method inherited from Animal myDog.bark(); // Call the bark() method specific to Dog return 0; } </code></pre> <p>In this program, the <code>Dog</code> class inherits from the <code>Animal</code> class, demonstrating single inheritance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Formatted I/O operations are controlled by format specifiers, allowing for the precise output of data types like integers, floats, strings, etc., with specific formatting options. Unformatted I/O operations, on the other hand, deal with raw data without specific formatting.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Scope Resolution Operator (::): This operator is used to resolve ambiguity when referring to members (data members or member functions) that have the same name in different namespaces or within a class hierarchy. It helps distinguish between members belonging to different classes or namespaces. For instance, consider two classes, A and B, each with a member function named 'display'. When calling the 'display' function, you can use '::' to specify which class the function belongs to (e.g, A::display() or B::display()).</p> <p>Manipulators: Manipulators are special functions used to modify the output behaviour of the input/output stream objects, typically 'cin' and 'cout' in C++. They allow for customising the presentation and format of data during I/O operations. Some common manipulators include 'endl' (inserts a newline and flushes the output buffer), 'setw' (sets the width of the output field), 'setprecision' (controls the number of digits after the decimal point), and 'left/right' (controls alignment within the output field).</p> <p>Generic Classes: Generic classes, also known as templates, provide a way to create reusable code for data structures and algorithms that can work with different data types. They use type parameters, typically denoted by letters like 'T' or 'U', which are placeholders for the specific data type that will be used when the template is instantiated. When using a generic class, you specify the data type at the instantiation. By using generic classes, we can create a single function or structure that can be used with various data types without the need to re-write the code for each specific data type.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Class: A class is a blueprint or a template that defines the structure and behaviour of objects. It defines data members (variables) that represent the object's attributes and member functions (methods) that encapsulate the object's actions. Using classes, we create objects that share the same structure and behaviours.</p> <p>Exception Handling: Exception handling is a mechanism to deal with errors or exceptional situations that occur during program execution. It allows the program to gracefully handle unexpected events and continue executing even after an error. C++ uses the try-catch block structure for exception handling.</p> <p>Call by Value: In call by value, a copy of the actual argument is passed to the function. Any modifications made to the argument inside the function are not reflected in the original argument outside the function. This is because the function works with a copy, not the original variable.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<pre><code class="language-c++">#include &lt;iostream&gt; using namespace std; int main() { int A[] = {2, 4, 8, 32, 16, 70, 89, 98}; int B[] = {3, 7, 9, 30, 35}; int C[15]; // Array to store the merged elements int i = 0, j = 0, k = 0; // Index variables // Merge elements from A and B into C while (i &lt; 8 &amp;&amp; j &lt; 5) { if (A[i] &lt; B[j]) { C[k++] = A[i++]; } else { C[k++] = B[j++]; } } // Copy remaining elements from A while (i &lt; 8) { C[k++] = A[i++]; } // Copy remaining elements from B while (j &lt; 5) { C[k++] = B[j++]; } // Print the merged array C cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Merged array C: &quot;; for (int m = 0; m &lt; k; m++) { cout &lt;&lt; C[m] &lt;&lt; &quot; &quot;; } cout &lt;&lt; endl; return 0; } </code></pre> <p>In this program, we use three index variables (i, j, k) to track positions in arrays A, B, and C. The program iterates through both arrays, comparing the elements at each step. The smaller element is placed into array C, and the respective index is incremented. This process continues until all elements are placed into array C, and then its contents are printed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<pre><code class="language-c++">#include &lt;iostream&gt; using namespace std; class Rectangle { private: double length; double breadth; public: // Constructor to initialize length and breadth Rectangle(double l, double b) : length(l), breadth(b) {} // Member function to calculate area double calculateArea() { return length * breadth; } // Member function to calculate perimeter double calculatePerimeter() { return 2 * (length + breadth); } }; int main() { double l, b; // Declare variables for length and breadth cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Enter the length of the rectangle: &quot;; cin &gt;&gt; l; cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Enter the breadth of the rectangle: &quot;; cin &gt;&gt; b; Rectangle myRectangle(l, b); // Create a Rectangle object cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Area of the rectangle: &quot; &lt;&lt; myRectangle.calculateArea() &lt;&lt; endl; cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Perimeter of the rectangle: &quot; &lt;&lt; myRectangle.calculatePerimeter() &lt;&lt; endl; return 0; } </code></pre> <p>In this C++ program, we define a <code>Rectangle</code> class that encapsulates the data members (length and breadth) and methods (<code>calculateArea</code> and <code>calculatePerimeter</code>) for computing the area and perimeter of a rectangle. The program then prompts the user for the length and breadth values, creates a <code>Rectangle</code> object, and displays the calculated area and perimeter.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Constructors and destructors play a crucial role in object-oriented programming, particularly in C++. They are special member functions that handle the initialization and cleanup of objects during their lifetime.</p> <p>Constructors:</p> <ul> <li><strong>Purpose:</strong> A constructor is a special member function that's automatically called when an object of a class is created. It's primarily used to initialize an object's data members upon creation, setting them up for use.</li> <li><strong>Key Characteristics:</strong> <ul> <li>They have the same name as the class.</li> <li>They don't have a return type (not even void).</li> <li>They're automatically called when objects are created.</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <p>Destructors:</p> <ul> <li><strong>Purpose:</strong> A destructor is a special member function that's automatically called when an object of a class is destroyed or goes out of scope. It's used to clean up resources, such as releasing allocated memory or closing files, that the object was using during its lifetime.</li> <li><strong>Key Characteristics:</strong> <ul> <li>They have the same name as the class but with a tilde (~) prefix.</li> <li>They don't have a return type (not even void).</li> <li>They're automatically called when objects are destroyed.</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <p>Here's a C++ example demonstrating constructors and destructors:</p> <pre><code class="language-c++">#include &lt;iostream&gt; using namespace std; class Employee { public: int employeeID; string name; // Constructor: Initialize the employee's data when created Employee(int id, string n) : employeeID(id), name(n) { cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Employee created: &quot; &lt;&lt; name &lt;&lt; endl; } // Destructor: Release resources when the object is destroyed ~Employee() { cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Employee destroyed: &quot; &lt;&lt; name &lt;&lt; endl; } }; int main() { Employee emp1(101, &quot;John Doe&quot;); // Create an Employee object Employee emp2(102, &quot;Jane Smith&quot;); // ... (Code to use emp1 and emp2 goes here) ... return 0; } </code></pre> <p>Constructors and destructors automatically handle initialization and cleanup of objects, promoting good coding practices, resource management, and ensuring proper object destruction when they're no longer needed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<pre><code class="language-c++">#include &lt;iostream&gt; using namespace std; class Calculation { private: int First_Val; int Second_Val; public: // Constructor to initialize values Calculation(int first, int second) : First_Val(first), Second_Val(second) {} // Member functions for arithmetic operations void add() { cout &lt;&lt; First_Val &lt;&lt; &quot; + &quot; &lt;&lt; Second_Val &lt;&lt; &quot; = &quot; &lt;&lt; First_Val + Second_Val &lt;&lt; endl; } void subtract() { cout &lt;&lt; First_Val &lt;&lt; &quot; - &quot; &lt;&lt; Second_Val &lt;&lt; &quot; = &quot; &lt;&lt; First_Val - Second_Val &lt;&lt; endl; } void multiply() { cout &lt;&lt; First_Val &lt;&lt; &quot; * &quot; &lt;&lt; Second_Val &lt;&lt; &quot; = &quot; &lt;&lt; First_Val * Second_Val &lt;&lt; endl; } void divide() { if (Second_Val != 0) { cout &lt;&lt; First_Val &lt;&lt; &quot; / &quot; &lt;&lt; Second_Val &lt;&lt; &quot; = &quot; &lt;&lt; First_Val / Second_Val &lt;&lt; endl; } else { cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Division by zero is not allowed.&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; } } }; int main() { Calculation myCalc(5, 25); // Create a Calculation object cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Performing arithmetic operations: &quot; &lt;&lt; endl; myCalc.add(); myCalc.subtract(); myCalc.multiply(); myCalc.divide(); return 0; } </code></pre> <p>This C++ program demonstrates a class named <code>Calculation</code> that encapsulates the logic for a basic calculator. The constructor initializes the two input values, and the member functions perform the required addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division operations. The program then calls these member functions to demonstrate the calculations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

A blueprint for creating objects. It defines data (attributes) and functions (methods) that objects of that class will have.

An instance of a class. It holds data and has access to the methods defined by the class.

A programming concept that focuses on the essential features of an object, hiding unnecessary details. This promotes code reusability and reduces complexity.

C++ is an object-oriented language, while C is a procedural language. C++ supports features like classes, objects, inheritance, and polymorphism, which are not available in C.

A special member function that automatically initializes an object when it is created. Its name is the same as the class name.

A mechanism for overriding a method inherited from a parent class. The overridden method provides a specialized implementation for the same behavior.

A mechanism for handling runtime errors or exceptions. It allows the program to gracefully recover from unexpected situations.

The code structure of a typical C++ program includes preprocessor directives, namespaces, main function, and user-defined functions.

Inheritance allows a class (derived class) to inherit properties and methods from another class (base class). There are different types like single, multiple, hierarchical, multilevel, and hybrid.

Overloading an operator means defining a new behavior for a specific operator when used with objects of your custom class.

It uses the same name for different data types. This makes the code more reusable and flexible.

The process of reclaiming memory that is no longer needed. This helps prevent memory leaks and optimizes resource usage. In C++, the responsibility of garbage collection typically lies with the programmer.

A type of function that can access private members of a class. This allows you to access or modify data that is otherwise inaccessible.

A header file containing declarations and definitions for standard C++ functions and classes.

Data types define the kind of values a variable can hold, like integers, floating-point numbers, characters, and booleans.

Operators perform operations on data. Types include arithmetic, relational, logical, bitwise, and assignment operators.

Dynamic memory allocation allows you to reserve memory during program execution. This is useful for creating objects and data structures of unknown sizes.

A special member function that is called automatically before an object is destroyed. It allows you to clean up resources used by the object.

A class that inherits from multiple parent classes. This allows it to combine features from different base classes.

A special group of objects that work together to represent a complex piece of data. Each object in the collection implements a specific aspect of the overall data representation.

A sequence of characters, used to represent text.

A piece of code that is executed on the server side, and often used to generate dynamic content for web pages.

A database connection that is kept open and ready to use, rather than establishing a new connection for each request.

A type of application program that runs within a web browser.

The process of converting JAVA source code into bytecode, which can then be executed by the JVM.

A component of a web page that defines a table structure.

A block of code that is executed when an event occurs, such as a button click or mouse movement.

A mechanism for handling events that involves passing the event to the most specific object that can handle it.

A unit of execution that can run concurrently with other threads within a program.

The ability for multiple threads to run concurrently, allowing programs to perform multiple tasks simultaneously.

A method in a subclass (derived class) that overrides (redefines) a method from its superclass (parent class).

The process of converting a string to all uppercase letters.

A tag in HTML used to define a frame within a webpage, allowing multiple pages or web content to be displayed within the same browser window.

A tag in HTML used to create a set of frames, defining the overall structure of how multiple web pages are displayed within a single browser window.

The concept of handling images in a JAVA GUI application. It involves loading, displaying, and manipulating images within the graphical interface.

A program that counts the number of objects created in a JAVA program.

The life cycle of an applet describes different stages, starting from initialization to execution and eventual destruction, when an applet is loaded and runs within a web browser.