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Questions and Answers
What character set might be in use for the documents being parsed?
What character set might be in use for the documents being parsed?
- CP1252
- ASCII
- UTF-8 (correct)
- ISO-8859-1
What is a token in the context of text preprocessing?
What is a token in the context of text preprocessing?
- A unique identifier for a word
- An instance of a sequence of characters (correct)
- A paragraph in a document
- A punctuation mark
What is the typical solution for dealing with hyphenated sequences during tokenization?
What is the typical solution for dealing with hyphenated sequences during tokenization?
- Consider the hyphenated sequence as two separate tokens
- Break up the hyphenated sequence (correct)
- Treat the entire hyphenated sequence as one token
- Remove the hyphens
How is the date '3/20/91' treated in the context of tokenization?
How is the date '3/20/91' treated in the context of tokenization?
What is the meaning of 'beyond reasonable doubt' in legal contexts?
What is the meaning of 'beyond reasonable doubt' in legal contexts?
What is the standard of proof in civil law known as?
What is the standard of proof in civil law known as?
Why might an event seem improbable for an individual but not be that rare in a broader context?
Why might an event seem improbable for an individual but not be that rare in a broader context?
What does the Birthday Paradox problem illustrate?
What does the Birthday Paradox problem illustrate?
In legal contexts, how are probabilities of all possible events handled?
In legal contexts, how are probabilities of all possible events handled?
What is the probative value expressed as a likelihood ratio (LR)?
What is the probative value expressed as a likelihood ratio (LR)?
What are personal probabilities, also known as personal 'degrees of belief', based on?
What are personal probabilities, also known as personal 'degrees of belief', based on?
What does the reliability of expert-assigned probabilities depend on?
What does the reliability of expert-assigned probabilities depend on?
What is the primary reason for including stop words in indexing despite them being commonly excluded in the past?
What is the primary reason for including stop words in indexing despite them being commonly excluded in the past?
Which algorithm is commonly used for stemming in English language information retrieval systems?
Which algorithm is commonly used for stemming in English language information retrieval systems?
Why might stemming provide significant performance gains for languages like Finnish compared to English?
Why might stemming provide significant performance gains for languages like Finnish compared to English?
In the context of information retrieval, what is the primary purpose of normalization of terms?
In the context of information retrieval, what is the primary purpose of normalization of terms?
In the context of Bayes' theorem, what does the likelihood ratio (LR) help to assess?
In the context of Bayes' theorem, what does the likelihood ratio (LR) help to assess?
What is the primary role of Bayes' theorem in medical testing and forensic science?
What is the primary role of Bayes' theorem in medical testing and forensic science?
What does the Bayes' theorem formula typically involve?
What does the Bayes' theorem formula typically involve?
Why is human intuition often inadequate for assessing the surprise of rare events?
Why is human intuition often inadequate for assessing the surprise of rare events?
Chinese and Japanese languages use spaces between words, making tokenization easier.
Chinese and Japanese languages use spaces between words, making tokenization easier.
Normalization of terms is not important for matching indexed text and query terms.
Normalization of terms is not important for matching indexed text and query terms.
Porter's algorithm is the best stemming algorithm for all languages.
Porter's algorithm is the best stemming algorithm for all languages.
Winning the lottery for an individual is rare, but given the large number of tickets sold, the occurrence of a winner is not as surprising as it seems.
Winning the lottery for an individual is rare, but given the large number of tickets sold, the occurrence of a winner is not as surprising as it seems.
The 'beyond reasonable doubt' standard of proof in criminal law requires the evidence to lead to a moral certainty that the accused is guilty, with no other logical explanation derived from the facts.
The 'beyond reasonable doubt' standard of proof in criminal law requires the evidence to lead to a moral certainty that the accused is guilty, with no other logical explanation derived from the facts.
The 'balance of probabilities' standard of proof in civil law requires the plaintiff to show that their assertion is more likely to be true than not true.
The 'balance of probabilities' standard of proof in civil law requires the plaintiff to show that their assertion is more likely to be true than not true.
Bayes' theorem can directly translate the accuracy of a test to the probability of a positive result indicating the presence of the condition being tested for.
Bayes' theorem can directly translate the accuracy of a test to the probability of a positive result indicating the presence of the condition being tested for.
Bayes' theorem formula involves the probability of having the condition given a positive test result, sensitivity, prevalence of the condition, and the probability of a positive test result.
Bayes' theorem formula involves the probability of having the condition given a positive test result, sensitivity, prevalence of the condition, and the probability of a positive test result.
The probability of a 'cluster' of rare events happening over a specific time span can be accurately assessed using human intuition.
The probability of a 'cluster' of rare events happening over a specific time span can be accurately assessed using human intuition.
Probabilities of all possible events add up to 1, and they are multiplied for independent events and added for mutually exclusive events.
Probabilities of all possible events add up to 1, and they are multiplied for independent events and added for mutually exclusive events.
The reliability of expert-assigned probabilities depends on the extent and relevance of the expert’s experience, memory, recall accuracy, bias avoidance, and calibration.
The reliability of expert-assigned probabilities depends on the extent and relevance of the expert’s experience, memory, recall accuracy, bias avoidance, and calibration.
The LR is expressed as the probability of the evidence assuming the suspect's DNA profile is true divided by the probability of the evidence assuming it originates from someone else.
The LR is expressed as the probability of the evidence assuming the suspect's DNA profile is true divided by the probability of the evidence assuming it originates from someone else.
Tokenization involves breaking up hyphenated sequences into separate tokens.
Tokenization involves breaking up hyphenated sequences into separate tokens.
Normalization of terms is not important for matching indexed text and query terms.
Normalization of terms is not important for matching indexed text and query terms.
Documents being indexed can only include a single language.
Documents being indexed can only include a single language.
Tokenization involves breaking up hyphenated sequences to form multiple tokens.
Tokenization involves breaking up hyphenated sequences to form multiple tokens.
A single index may contain terms from multiple languages.
A single index may contain terms from multiple languages.
In the context of text preprocessing, a token is an instance of a sequence of characters.
In the context of text preprocessing, a token is an instance of a sequence of characters.
What is the primary purpose of the 'balance of probabilities' standard of proof in civil law?
What is the primary purpose of the 'balance of probabilities' standard of proof in civil law?
What is the meaning of 'beyond reasonable doubt' in legal contexts?
What is the meaning of 'beyond reasonable doubt' in legal contexts?
What is the primary reason for including stop words in indexing despite them being commonly excluded in the past?
What is the primary reason for including stop words in indexing despite them being commonly excluded in the past?
Why might an event seem improbable for an individual but not be that rare in a broader context?
Why might an event seem improbable for an individual but not be that rare in a broader context?
What does the Birthday Paradox problem illustrate?
What does the Birthday Paradox problem illustrate?
What is the highest standard of proof in criminal law?
What is the highest standard of proof in criminal law?
What is the primary role of Bayes' theorem in medical testing and forensic science?
What is the primary role of Bayes' theorem in medical testing and forensic science?
What is the probability of winning the lottery for an individual, given odds of 45 million to 1 against?
What is the probability of winning the lottery for an individual, given odds of 45 million to 1 against?
What is the primary purpose of normalization of terms in the context of information retrieval?
What is the primary purpose of normalization of terms in the context of information retrieval?
What is the probability of a 'cluster' of rare events happening over a specific time span, according to human intuition?
What is the probability of a 'cluster' of rare events happening over a specific time span, according to human intuition?
What is the primary purpose of the 'balance of probabilities' standard of proof in civil law?
What is the primary purpose of the 'balance of probabilities' standard of proof in civil law?
What is the meaning of 'beyond reasonable doubt' in legal contexts?
What is the meaning of 'beyond reasonable doubt' in legal contexts?
What is the complexity of evaluating rare events according to the text?
What is the complexity of evaluating rare events according to the text?
What is the primary role of Bayes' theorem in medical testing and forensic science?
What is the primary role of Bayes' theorem in medical testing and forensic science?
Why is human intuition often inadequate for assessing the surprise of rare events?
Why is human intuition often inadequate for assessing the surprise of rare events?
What does the Birthday Paradox problem illustrate?
What does the Birthday Paradox problem illustrate?
What is the reliability of expert-assigned probabilities dependent on?
What is the reliability of expert-assigned probabilities dependent on?
What characterizes the 'beyond reasonable doubt' standard of proof in criminal law?
What characterizes the 'beyond reasonable doubt' standard of proof in criminal law?
What is the primary reason for including stop words in indexing despite them being commonly excluded in the past?
What is the primary reason for including stop words in indexing despite them being commonly excluded in the past?
What does the 'balance of probabilities' standard of proof in legal contexts relate to?
What does the 'balance of probabilities' standard of proof in legal contexts relate to?
In the context of text preprocessing, what is the primary purpose of tokenization?
In the context of text preprocessing, what is the primary purpose of tokenization?
Which character set might be in use for the documents being parsed during text preprocessing?
Which character set might be in use for the documents being parsed during text preprocessing?
What is a valid token to emit from the input 'Finland’s capital' during tokenization?
What is a valid token to emit from the input 'Finland’s capital' during tokenization?
What is the typical solution for dealing with hyphenated sequences during tokenization?
What is the typical solution for dealing with hyphenated sequences during tokenization?
What is the output of tokenization for the input 'San Francisco'?
What is the output of tokenization for the input 'San Francisco'?
What are the tasks often done heuristically during text preprocessing?
What are the tasks often done heuristically during text preprocessing?
What is the primary role of Bayes' theorem in interpreting likelihood ratios in forensic science and medical testing?
What is the primary role of Bayes' theorem in interpreting likelihood ratios in forensic science and medical testing?
What does the Bayes' theorem formula typically involve in the context of medical testing and forensic science?
What does the Bayes' theorem formula typically involve in the context of medical testing and forensic science?
Why might human intuition often struggle with assessing the true surprise of rare events?
Why might human intuition often struggle with assessing the true surprise of rare events?
What characterizes the interpretation of test accuracy and the probability of a positive result indicating a condition?
What characterizes the interpretation of test accuracy and the probability of a positive result indicating a condition?
What is the primary application of Bayes' theorem in calculating the probability of having breast cancer given a positive mammogram result?
What is the primary application of Bayes' theorem in calculating the probability of having breast cancer given a positive mammogram result?
What does the concept of coincidences illustrate in the context of rare events?
What does the concept of coincidences illustrate in the context of rare events?
In legal contexts, how are probabilities of all possible events handled?
In legal contexts, how are probabilities of all possible events handled?
What characterizes the 'beyond reasonable doubt' standard of proof in criminal law?
What characterizes the 'beyond reasonable doubt' standard of proof in criminal law?
What does the probative value expressed as a likelihood ratio (LR) indicate?
What does the probative value expressed as a likelihood ratio (LR) indicate?
What is the primary role of Bayes' theorem in medical testing and forensic science?
What is the primary role of Bayes' theorem in medical testing and forensic science?
What are personal probabilities, also known as personal 'degrees of belief', based on?
What are personal probabilities, also known as personal 'degrees of belief', based on?
What do likelihood ratios typically assess in DNA evidence?
What do likelihood ratios typically assess in DNA evidence?
What is the primary purpose of lemmatization in text preprocessing?
What is the primary purpose of lemmatization in text preprocessing?
What is the impact of case folding in text preprocessing?
What is the impact of case folding in text preprocessing?
What is the significance of including stop words in indexing despite their common exclusion in the past?
What is the significance of including stop words in indexing despite their common exclusion in the past?
Which algorithm is commonly used for stemming in English language information retrieval systems?
Which algorithm is commonly used for stemming in English language information retrieval systems?
What is the challenge associated with tokenization in Chinese and Japanese languages?
What is the challenge associated with tokenization in Chinese and Japanese languages?
What characterizes the writing direction and text complexity of Arabic and Hebrew languages?
What characterizes the writing direction and text complexity of Arabic and Hebrew languages?
In the context of legal contexts, what characterizes the 'balance of probabilities' standard of proof in civil law?
In the context of legal contexts, what characterizes the 'balance of probabilities' standard of proof in civil law?
What does the 'beyond reasonable doubt' standard of proof in criminal law require?
What does the 'beyond reasonable doubt' standard of proof in criminal law require?
What is the primary reason for the occurrence of a lottery win not being as surprising as it seems?
What is the primary reason for the occurrence of a lottery win not being as surprising as it seems?
What characterizes the complexity of evaluating rare events according to the text?
What characterizes the complexity of evaluating rare events according to the text?
What does the term 'beyond reasonable doubt' mean in legal contexts?
What does the term 'beyond reasonable doubt' mean in legal contexts?
What is the significance of the 'balance of probabilities' standard of proof in civil law?
What is the significance of the 'balance of probabilities' standard of proof in civil law?
What is the primary purpose of the 'balance of probabilities' standard of proof in civil law?
What is the primary purpose of the 'balance of probabilities' standard of proof in civil law?
What characterizes the 'beyond reasonable doubt' standard of proof in criminal law?
What characterizes the 'beyond reasonable doubt' standard of proof in criminal law?
What does the Birthday Paradox problem illustrate?
What does the Birthday Paradox problem illustrate?
Why might an event seem improbable for an individual but not be that rare in a broader context?
Why might an event seem improbable for an individual but not be that rare in a broader context?
What is the complexity of evaluating rare events according to the text?
What is the complexity of evaluating rare events according to the text?
What is the meaning of 'beyond reasonable doubt' in legal contexts?
What is the meaning of 'beyond reasonable doubt' in legal contexts?
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Study Notes
Bayes Theorem and Likelihood Ratios in Forensic Science and Medical Testing
- Likelihood ratio (LR) is a measure used in forensic science to assess the strength of evidence, often reaching values in the millions or billions.
- Bayes' theorem provides a general rule for updating probabilities based on new evidence, and it is crucial in interpreting LRs in forensic science and medical testing.
- A hypothetical example involving a screening test for doping in sports illustrates the application of Bayes' theorem in computing posterior odds and probabilities.
- The example shows that the accuracy of a test, based on sensitivity and specificity metrics, does not directly translate to the probability of a positive result indicating the presence of the condition being tested for.
- The interpretation of test accuracy and the probability of a positive result indicating the condition depend on the prior odds for the condition before the test is conducted.
- A practical example using mammograms and breast cancer prevalence demonstrates the application of Bayes' theorem in calculating the probability of having breast cancer given a positive mammogram result.
- Bayes' theorem formula involves the probability of having the condition given a positive test result, sensitivity, prevalence of the condition, and the probability of a positive test result.
- Human intuition often struggles with assessing the true surprise of rare events, as the perception of rarity for an individual may not reflect the actual surprise when considering a larger group.
- The concept of coincidences is illustrated using the example of three major plane crashes occurring within an eight-day period, where the probability of such a 'cluster' happening over a ten-year span is approximately 60%.
- The example of rare events and coincidences highlights the limitations of human intuition in assessing the likelihood and surprise of such occurrences.
- The text emphasizes the importance of understanding Bayes' theorem and likelihood ratios in interpreting test results accurately and avoiding misinterpretations that could lead to incorrect conclusions or accusations.
- The examples provided demonstrate the practical application of Bayes' theorem and likelihood ratios in forensic science, medical testing, and assessing the surprise of rare events.
Statistical Science and Probabilities in Legal Proceedings
- Statistical science can support expert knowledge in various types of evidence and proceedings, including DNA evidence, trace evidence, pattern-matching evidence, and causation of illness or injury in civil cases.
- Transparent communication of data and reasoning is crucial when drawing conclusions based on statistical science in legal proceedings.
- Probabilities of all possible events add up to 1, and they are multiplied for independent events and added for mutually exclusive events.
- Probability is presented as a subjective measure, dependent on the observer's knowledge and assumptions, and it changes with new information.
- In legal contexts, probability is used to make informed judgments based on available data, and relevant data is crucial in assigning probabilities.
- Personal probabilities, also known as personal 'degrees of belief', are made based on individual knowledge and understanding of risks involved.
- Experts assign personal probabilities based on their experience, knowledge, and understanding of their type of expert evidence.
- The reliability of expert-assigned probabilities depends on the extent and relevance of the expert’s experience, memory, recall accuracy, bias avoidance, and calibration.
- The probative value expressed as a likelihood ratio (LR) is the probability of the evidence assuming one proposition is true divided by the probability assuming another is true.
- Likelihood ratios are typically attached to DNA evidence to assess the match between a suspect’s DNA profile and the DNA profile derived from a trace found at a crime scene.
- The two competing hypotheses for likelihood ratios in DNA evidence are that the DNA profile in the recovered trace material originates from the suspect or from someone else.
- The LR is expressed as the probability of the evidence assuming the suspect's DNA profile is true divided by the probability of the evidence assuming it originates from someone else.
Information Retrieval Techniques
- PGP key: 324a3df234cb23e, contact number: (800) 234‐2333
- Older IR systems do not index numbers, but they can be useful for error code/stacktrace lookups
- Tokenization presents language challenges, such as French word segmentation and German compound words
- Chinese and Japanese lack spaces between words, leading to unique tokenization issues
- Arabic and Hebrew are written right to left, with complex ligatures and unique character order
- Stop words (e.g., the, a, and, to, be) are commonly excluded from indexing but are now being included due to improved compression and query optimization
- Normalization of terms is crucial for matching indexed text and query terms, including date forms and language-specific tokenization
- Case folding reduces all letters to lower case, except for mid-sentence uppercase letters
- Lemmatization reduces inflectional/variant forms to base form, while stemming reduces terms to their roots before indexing
- Porter's algorithm is a common stemming algorithm for English, with specific reduction phases and rules
- Stemming has mixed results in English but provides significant performance gains for languages like Finnish
- Quantitative reasoning in legal settings involves descriptive statistics, inference, prediction, and evaluation using probability as a measure of uncertainty
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