Battle of Hastings, 1066

• The Battle of Hastings occurred on October 14, 1066.
• It was fought between the Norman-French army led by William, Duke of Normandy, and the English army led by Anglo-Saxon King Harold Godwinson.
• The battle led to the Norman Conquest of England and resulted in a decisive Norman victory.
• The battle took place approximately 7 miles (11 km) northwest of Hastings, near the present-day town of Battle, East Sussex.

Background

• King Edward the Confessor died childless in January 1066, leading to a succession crisis.
• Harold Godwinson was crowned king shortly after Edward's death.
• William of Normandy, Tostig (Harold's brother), and Harald Hardrada (King of Norway) all claimed the throne.
• Hardrada and Tostig were defeated by Harold at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on September 25, 1066, after initially defeating an English army at the Battle of Fulford.
• William landed his invasion force at Pevensey on September 28, 1066, while Harold's forces were recovering.

Troop Composition and Tactics

• The exact numbers at the battle are unknown.
• The English army was composed almost entirely of infantry with few archers.
• About half of the invading force was infantry, with the rest split evenly between cavalry and archers.
• Harold tried to surprise William, but scouts found his army, and William marched to confront him.
• The battle lasted from about 9 am to dusk.
• Early Norman efforts to break the English lines were unsuccessful.
• The Normans used a tactic of pretending to flee in panic and then attacking their pursuers.
• Harold died near the end of the battle, leading to the retreat and defeat of his army.

Outcome and Casualties

• William was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066.
• The Battle of Hastings effectively marked the culmination of William's conquest of England.
• Historians estimate that 2,000 invaders died, along with about twice that number of Englishmen.
• William founded a monastery at the battle site, with the high altar supposedly placed where Harold died.

Earlier History

• In 911, Charles the Simple, a Carolingian ruler, allowed Vikings to settle in Normandy under Rollo.
• The Vikings assimilated into the local culture, converting to Christianity and intermarrying.
• In 1002, King Æthelred II married Emma, sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy.
• Their son, Edward the Confessor, spent years in exile in Normandy and became king in 1042.
• Edward's reign led to Norman influence in English politics.
• Edward was childless and had conflicts with Godwin, Earl of Wessex, which may have led him to encourage William's ambitions for the throne.

Succession Crisis

• King Edward's death on January 5, 1066, created a succession crisis with multiple claimants.
• Harold Godwinson was elected king by the Witenagemot and crowned by Ealdred, the Archbishop of York.
• Duke William claimed Edward had promised him the throne and that Harold had sworn agreement.
• Harald Hardrada of Norway also claimed the throne based on an agreement between Magnus the Good and Harthacnut.
• William and Harald Hardrada prepared to invade.

Other Invasions

• Tostig Godwinson, Harold's exiled brother, raided southeastern England in early 1066 with a fleet from Flanders and Orkney.
• Edwin, Earl of Mercia, and Morcar, Earl of Northumbria, drove Tostig north.
• Harald Hardrada invaded northern England in early September with over 300 ships and 15,000 men, joined by Tostig.
• The Norwegians captured York after defeating Edwin and Morcar at the Battle of Fulford on September 20.

English Forces

• The English army was organized regionally, with the fyrd (local levy) serving under local magnates.
• The fyrd was composed of land-owning men equipped by their communities.
• England could furnish about 14,000 men for the fyrd.
• The king also had personal armsmen, known as housecarls.
• Thegns (local elites) fought with the royal housecarls or attached themselves to an earl's forces.
• The English army lacked a significant number of archers.
• Harold stationed his army and fleet on the south coast mid-1066, awaiting William's invasion, but dismissed them September 8 to harvest crops.
• Learning of the Norwegian invasion, Harold rushed north, defeated them at Stamford Bridge on September 25, killing Harald Hardrada and Tostig.
• The English victory was costly, leaving Harold's army weakened and far from the south.

Norman Preparations

• William gathered a large invasion fleet and army from Normandy, Brittany, and Flanders, spending nine months on preparations.
• Some Norman chronicles claim Pope Alexander II gave a papal banner as support.
• Halley's Comet appeared in April 1066, linked to the English succession crisis.
• William mustered his forces at Saint-Valery-sur-Somme, ready to cross the English Channel by August 12, but was delayed by weather or the English fleet.
• The Normans crossed to England after Harold's victory over the Norwegians, landing at Pevensey in Sussex on September 28.
• William's forces built a wooden castle at Hastings and fortifications at Pevensey, raiding the surrounding area.

Norman Army

• William's force size is unknown, estimates ranging from 7,000 to 12,000 men.
• The army consisted of about half infantry, one-quarter cavalry, and one-quarter archers or crossbowmen.
• Only about 35 individuals can be reliably identified as having been with William at Hastings.
• Soldiers wore chainmail hauberks, conical metal helmets, and shields.
• Horsemen used kite-shaped shields and lances.
• Infantry and cavalry used straight swords, javelins, and long spears.
• Archers used self bows or crossbows, and most were unarmoured.

Harold’s Moves

• After defeating his brother and Harald Hardrada, Harold marched his army south, leaving forces in the north.
• Harold likely learned of William's landing during the march.
• He stopped in London for about a week, averaging about 27 mi (43 km) per day on his march south.
• Harold camped at Caldbec Hill on the night of October 13, about 8 mi (13 km) from William's castle at Hastings.
• William's scouts reported Harold's arrival.
• William's army advanced toward the enemy with Harold taking a defensive position at the top of Senlac Hill, 6 mi (9.7 km) from William's castle.

English Army at Hastings

• The number of soldiers in Harold's army is unknown.
• Recent historians estimate between 5,000 and 13,000 troops.
• The army consisted of the fyrd and housecarls.
• About 20 individual Englishmen are known to have been present.
• The army consisted entirely of infantry, with housecarls forming the core.
• Housecarls were full-time soldiers with conical helmets, mail hauberks, and shields, wielding two-handed Danish battleaxes or swords.
• The fyrd were more lightly armoured and formed a shield wall.

The Battle

• Fighting began at 9 am on Saturday, October 14, 1066, and lasted until dusk.
• Sunset was at 4:54 pm, with full darkness by 6:24 pm.
• The battle took place 7 mi (11 km) north of Hastings, between Caldbec Hill and Telham Hill.
• The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle called it the battle "at the hoary apple tree".
• The battle was referred to as "bellum Haestingas" or "Battle of Hastings" by 1086 in the Domesday Book.

Army Positions

• Harold's forces were in a dense formation at the top of a steep slope with flanks protected by woods and marshy ground.
• The English formed a shield wall, with front ranks overlapping shields.
• William arranged his forces in three groups: Bretons on the left, Normans in the center, and Frenchmen on the right
• Archers were in the front lines, infantry with spears behind, and cavalry in reserve.
• William planned for archers to weaken the enemy, followed by infantry and a cavalry charge.

Battle Onset

• The battle began with Norman archers shooting uphill at the English shield wall, to little effect.
• The archers were followed by spearmen who were met with spears, axes, and stones.
• The cavalry failed to make headway, and a general retreat began, blamed on the Breton division.
• A rumour started that William had been killed, adding to the confusion.
• English forces began to pursue the fleeing invaders.
• William rode through his forces, showing his face, and led a counter-attack.
• Accounts relate to Gyrth's death and the circumstances surrounding Harold's decision to fight till the end.

Retreating

• A lull probably occurred early in the afternoon, with a break for rest and food.
• William implemented a new strategy inspired by the English pursuit and rout.
• William of Poitiers says the tactic was used twice during the battle
• Historians agree feigned flights were used as a Norman tactic at Hastings.
• The feigned flights may have thinned out the housecarls in the English shield wall.
• Archers were used again before and during an assault by the cavalry and infantry led by William.
• Duke William had two or three horses killed under him during the fighting.

Harold's Death

• Harold died late in the battle, but accounts vary.
• William of Poitiers mentions his death without details.
• The Bayeux Tapestry shows a figure with an arrow in his eye and a falling fighter, with the statement "Here King Harold has been killed", but it's unclear which figure is Harold, or if both are.
• The earliest mention of Harold dying from an arrow to the eye dates to the 1080s.
• William of Malmesbury said Harold died from an arrow to the eye and a knight's wound.
• The Carmen states that Duke William killed Harold, but this is unlikely.
• William of Jumièges has Harold dying in the morning, which is also unlikely.
• The Chronicle of Battle Abbey states that no one knew who killed Harold.
• Harold's death left the English forces leaderless, and they began to collapse.
• The Normans pursued the fleeing troops, and the battle ended except for a rearguard action at the "Malfosse".
• At Malfosse, some Englishmen rallied and wounded Eustace of Boulogne before being defeated by the Normans.

Reasons for Defeat

• Harold's defeat resulted from defending against two invasions and dismissing his forces in southern England.
• Harold hurried south and didn't gather enough forces.
• The battle's length suggests the English forces were not tired from their march.
• Harold may not have trusted Earls Edwin of Mercia and Morcar of Northumbria after defeating Tostig.
• Harold rushed to battle to contain William's depredations.
• William was more experienced, and the English lacked cavalry.
• The English erred in not staying strictly on the defensive, exposing their flanks when pursuing the Normans.
• Harold's death led to the break-up of the English forces.
• William's army demonstrated the superiority of Norman-French tactics.

Aftermath

• Harold's body was identified the day after the battle by his armour or marks.
• His personal standard was presented to William and sent to the papacy.
• The English dead were left on the battlefield.
• The Norman dead were buried in a communal grave.
• Marren speculates that perhaps 2,000 Normans and 4,000 Englishmen were killed at Hastings.
• Gytha, Harold's mother, offered William the weight of her son's body in gold for its custody, but was refused.
• William ordered Harold's body thrown into the sea, but it is unclear if this took place.
• Edgar the Ætheling was proclaimed king by the Witenagemot.
• William advanced on London, defeating an English force at Southwark but unable to storm London Bridge.
• The English leaders surrendered to William at Berkhamsted.
• William was acclaimed King of England and crowned on December 25, 1066, in Westminster Abbey.
• Resistance continued for several years with rebellions in Exeter, invasions by Harold's sons, and uprisings in Northumbria.
• William put down the risings, including the Harrying of the North in 1069–1070.
• Battle Abbey was founded by William at the battle site with the high altar at the site of Harold's death.
• The battlefield's topography has been altered by construction work for the abbey.
• The battlefield and abbey are currently owned and administered by English Heritage.
• The Bayeux Tapestry is a narrative embroidery of the events leading up to Hastings.
• Some English veterans of the battle joined the Varangian Guard in Constantinople and fought the Normans again at the Battle of Dyrrhachium in 1081.