Principles of Science and Systems (Chapter 2)

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Questions and Answers

Which basic principle of science emphasizes the importance of observable phenomena in understanding natural laws?

Uniformitarianism

Parsimony

Empiricism (correct)

Uncertainty

What principle states that the simplest explanation is usually the best?

Repeatability

Uncertainty

Parsimony (correct)

Proof is elusive

Which basic principle of science acknowledges that scientific knowledge evolves as new evidence emerges?

Testable questions

Repeatability

Uncertainty (correct)

Empiricism

What is the main emphasis of the repeatability principle in scientific experiments?

Results must be reproducible to be valid Signup and view all the answers

What does the principle of proof being elusive imply about scientific theories?

New evidence may always challenge current theories Signup and view all the answers

The basic principles of science

Empiricism Uniformitarianism Parsimony Uncertainty Repeatability Proof is elusive Testable questions Signup and view all the answers

What does science rely on when developing or testing theories?

Precise observations of natural phenomena Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant shift in thinking during the Middle Ages regarding knowledge acquisition?

Religious authorities became the ultimate source of knowledge. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of peer review in scientific research?

To evaluate study design and interpretation of results objectively. Signup and view all the answers

Why is skepticism important in scientific practice?

It motivates scientists to seek substantial evidence before accepting conclusions. Signup and view all the answers

What assumption underlies scientific inquiry?

The world can be understood through careful observation. Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of reproducibility in science emphasize?

Results are only valid if they can be reproduced consistently. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the nature of scientific knowledge?

It evolves as new evidence and discoveries emerge. Signup and view all the answers

What defines a reasonable scientific explanation?

An explanation supported by substantial and testable evidence. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'scientific theory' imply in a scientific context?

It is an explanation supported by a substantial body of data. Signup and view all the answers

How does science communication contribute to society?

By translating complex ideas for general understanding. Signup and view all the answers

In probability, what does a 20 percent chance of catching a cold indicate?

20 out of every 100 people are likely to catch a cold. Signup and view all the answers

Why is a sample size of 2,000 preferable to a sample size of 200 in a study?

It is more likely to represent the actual population. Signup and view all the answers

What does an ecological test indicate if there is less than a 5 percent probability that results occurred by random chance?

The results are considered significant. Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of probability often hinge upon?

Previous observations or statistical measures. Signup and view all the answers

What impact does science literacy have on democracy?

It encourages public participation in scientific discussions. Signup and view all the answers

What would most likely influence the likelihood of catching a cold in the winter?

How frequently the person washes their hands. Signup and view all the answers

How does studying late potentially influence illness among students?

It may lead to higher rates of catching colds. Signup and view all the answers

Why is it essential to provide context when communicating scientific findings?

To enhance understanding of relevance and implications. Signup and view all the answers

What role does random chance play in determining probability?

It can influence outcomes in certain situations. Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred when 40 percent of students in a class caught a cold but only 20 percent statewide did?

The difference in rates suggests potential contributing factors. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between accuracy and precision in scientific measurements?

Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measurement to the true value, while precision refers to the consistency of repeated measurements. Signup and view all the answers

In the process of scientific inquiry, what does the term 'replication' refer to?

The act of repeating studies under the same conditions to confirm results. Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of deductive reasoning in the scientific method?

Concluding that an apple will fall because massive objects attract each other due to gravity. Signup and view all the answers

What does inductive reasoning primarily rely on in scientific investigation?

Drawing general conclusions from repeated observations. Signup and view all the answers

Why is absolute proof considered rare in science?

The world is complex with numerous possible explanations for phenomena. Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant figure in scientific measurements?

A digit that conveys the precision of a measurement according to the measuring instrument. Signup and view all the answers

What is the first step when employing the scientific method to solve a problem?

Observing an issue or phenomenon that needs explanation. Signup and view all the answers

How does insight and creativity influence scientific discovery?

They can provide innovative and unexpected pathways for breakthroughs in understanding. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes a hypothesis within the scientific method?

A testable explanation that can be supported or refuted by observations. Signup and view all the answers

What problem arises when formulating a hypothesis based solely on observations of a large population?

There is a risk of confirming a hypothesis without comprehensive testing. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of having a methodical approach in scientific testing?

It allows researchers to identify which components are faulty in a system. Signup and view all the answers

In the dart-throwing analogy, what aspect does hitting the same spot represent?

The precision of the dart throws. Signup and view all the answers

Why is it important to describe the conditions of a study in research?

It allows other researchers to replicate the findings accurately. Signup and view all the answers

When is an observation deemed untestable in scientific research?

When it relies on subjective beliefs and cannot be measured. Signup and view all the answers

What does the quote about seeing hundreds of swans illustrate concerning scientific hypotheses?

That hypotheses based on limited observations may risk missing contradictory evidence. Signup and view all the answers

What is a feature that reputable organizations provide to ensure transparency in their findings?

Thorough documentation of evidence Signup and view all the answers

What key question should be asked to assess the reliability of an 'expert' report?

Is the report peer-reviewed? Signup and view all the answers

According to the discussed strategies, which factor is NOT mentioned as a way to identify misinformation?

Reviewing social media feedback Signup and view all the answers

How did Carl Sagan contribute to the evaluation of scientific claims?

By devising a 'Baloney Detection Kit' Signup and view all the answers

What does Edward O. Wilson suggest about contrarians in public discussions on science?

They tend to attract media attention rather than foster scientific dialogue. Signup and view all the answers

What type of study is described as one that observes natural systems without manipulation?

Observational experiment Signup and view all the answers

What is a major advantage of having a large data set in ecological studies?

Improves the reliability of inferences Signup and view all the answers

How do natural experiments differ from controlled experiments?

Natural experiments focus on events that have already occurred Signup and view all the answers

What might limit the effectiveness of manipulative experiments in real environments?

They can be ecologically damaging Signup and view all the answers

What is the key feature of double-blind experiments?

Both researcher and subjects do not know group assignments Signup and view all the answers

In an experiment studying the effect of lawn chemicals on tadpole deformities, what is the role of the control group?

To provide a baseline for comparison with the treatment group Signup and view all the answers

What term is often used to describe variables that are presumed to explain differences in the dependent variable?

Independent variables Signup and view all the answers

What does a mathematical model of population growth describe?

The relationship between population size and growth rate Signup and view all the answers

What is considered a limitation of using physical models in scientific research?

They often require precise conditions that can’t be replicated Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of observational studies in ecology?

They provide correlations rather than causations Signup and view all the answers

Why might scientists prefer models over direct observation in some studies?

Direct observations are time-consuming and sometimes impractical Signup and view all the answers

In the population growth model $N_t = r N_{t-1}$, what does $N_t$ represent?

Population size at time t Signup and view all the answers

What is a challenge associated with conducting manipulative experiments?

They may lead to ethical concerns regarding species protection Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of simulation models in economics and climatology?

To simulate complex systems and observe variations Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes an open system in environmental science?

It receives inputs and produces outputs with minimal exchange. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common characteristic of positive feedback mechanisms in a system?

They create a self-perpetuating cycle that amplifies a process. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor can lead to biomass accumulation in an ecosystem?

High soil moisture levels Signup and view all the answers

How do simulation models produce predictions about future events?

By considering various assumptions and variables incorporated in the models. Signup and view all the answers

What role do throughput concepts play in understanding ecosystems?

They illustrate how energy and matter flow into, through, and out of systems. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a pseudo-closed system?

A greenhouse where minimal external air enters Signup and view all the answers

What can occur if positive feedback mechanisms are left unchecked in a system?

The system may become overcrowded and collapse. Signup and view all the answers

What is a central concept in environmental science that helps us understand complex phenomena?

Systems thinking Signup and view all the answers

What effect do negative feedback mechanisms have on a system?

They provide stability by counteracting rapid changes. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes a river as a system?

It includes its watershed and living organisms in a network. Signup and view all the answers

In terms of biomass, what distinguishes rain forests from grasslands?

Grasslands experience less rainfall than rain forests. Signup and view all the answers

What limits the predictability of open systems in scientific study?

The uncontrolled variables present in their environment. Signup and view all the answers

What motivates the use of simplified, pseudo-closed systems in experiments?

They allow for better control over inputs and accurate measurements. Signup and view all the answers

What effect do clouds have on the warming process?

They block some solar heat. Signup and view all the answers

In population dynamics, what is an example of negative feedback?

Limited resources leading to fewer surviving young. Signup and view all the answers

How does sweating function as a negative feedback mechanism?

It assists in maintaining body temperature during exercise. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes dynamic equilibrium in ecosystems?

A tendency for a system to change and then return to normal. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common result of disturbances in grasslands?

Stimulating grass growth and recycling nutrients. Signup and view all the answers

Which phenomenon describes an ability to recover from disturbances in ecosystems?

Resilience. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by emergent properties in a system?

Characteristics that are greater than the sum of the individual parts. Signup and view all the answers

What role does scientific consensus play in scientific research?

It reflects a general agreement among informed scholars after extensive research. Signup and view all the answers

How did the idea of tectonic plate movement impact geological science?

It revolutionized explanations of earth's features and life forms. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main impact of severe disturbances on a grassland ecosystem?

Short-term damage that can lead to recovery. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'state shift' refer to in ecological systems?

A permanent change to a simpler system. Signup and view all the answers

Which of these exemplifies a positive feedback mechanism in population dynamics?

Increase in population leading to more births. Signup and view all the answers

What ensures a balance of scientific ideas and findings in research communities?

Collaborative discussions and exchanges of ideas. Signup and view all the answers

Why is a temperature change of 4–6°F considered serious in the human body?

It indicates a breakdown in homeostasis. Signup and view all the answers

What is a paradigm shift according to Thomas Kuhn?

A major change in the scientific framework accepted by a majority. Signup and view all the answers

What often contributes to the contentious nature of paradigm shifts?

The political implications involved in changing established views. Signup and view all the answers

What has been a significant strategy used by industries to influence public perception of climate science?

Commissioning studies that support their position. Signup and view all the answers

How did the tobacco lobby's strategy in the past relate to climate misinformation?

Both relied on misleading public narratives to create doubt. Signup and view all the answers

What is often misrepresented in media coverage about scientific consensus on climate change?

That the sides of the argument are equally valid. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common approach taken by climate change skeptics regarding their arguments?

They argue that proposed solutions are unfeasible or too costly. Signup and view all the answers

What factor often influences a person's acceptance or rejection of scientific evidence?

Their political affiliations and group identity. Signup and view all the answers

In deciding the credibility of a scientific claim, which of the following questions would be most relevant?

What emotional appeal does the source make? Signup and view all the answers

What transformed the perception of climate change by the 2020s?

The complete denial of climate science faded. Signup and view all the answers

What has been the effect of media alignment with political groups on scientific reporting?

Inconsistent representation of scientific consensus. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following reflects the public's tendency related to group identity in receiving scientific views?

Individuals often seek to align with their group's beliefs. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect defines the strategy shift from outright climate change denial to questioning solutions?

Recognition of climate change as a valid issue. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best exemplifies critical thinking regarding scientific claims?

Evaluating sources based on their funding and agenda. Signup and view all the answers

What outcome might occur when a scientific consensus is presented as divisive in news media?

It can undermine public understanding and trust in science. Signup and view all the answers

What does the observed delay in acceptance of new scientific paradigms often stem from?

Generational shifts in the scientific community. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Basic Principles of Science

Empiricism: Learning about the world through careful observation of real, observable phenomena. Understanding fundamental processes and natural laws is possible through observation.
Uniformitarianism: Basic patterns and processes are consistent across time and space. Current forces shaping the world are the same as those in the past and will continue in the future.
Parsimony (Ockham's Razor): When two explanations are equally likely, the simpler explanation is preferred.
Uncertainty: Scientific knowledge evolves with new evidence. Theories are tested with more data, recognizing that new information might disprove existing theories.
Repeatability: Experiments and tests must be reproducible. If the same results cannot be reproduced, conclusions are likely incorrect.
Proof is Elusive: Science rarely provides definitive proof of a theory. New evidence can always challenge existing understanding.
Testable Questions: Theories are tested by formulating testable statements (hypotheses).

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