Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space.
- States of matter: solid, liquid, gas, plasma.
Atoms: Basic units of matter, composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
- Atomic number: Number of protons in the nucleus.
- Mass number: Total number of protons and neutrons.
Elements: Pure substances made of one type of atom, represented by symbols (e.g., H for hydrogen).
Compounds: Substances formed when two or more elements chemically bond (e.g., H₂O for water).

Ionic Bonds: Formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another, resulting in charged ions.
Covalent Bonds: Formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms.
Metallic Bonds: Involves the pooling of electrons in a lattice of metal atoms.

Reactants: Substances that undergo a chemical change.
Products: New substances formed as a result of a chemical reaction.
Types of Reactions:
- Synthesis: A + B → AB
- Decomposition: AB → A + B
- Single Replacement: A + BC → B + AC
- Double Replacement: AB + CD → AD + CB
- Combustion: Hydrocarbon + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O

Mole: A unit measuring the amount of substance, containing Avogadro's number (6.022 x 10²³) of particles.
Molar Mass: Mass of one mole of a substance (g/mol).
Stoichiometry: The calculation of reactants and products in chemical reactions, based on balanced equations.

Acids: Substances that donate protons (H⁺), characterized by a pH less than 7.
Bases: Substances that accept protons or donate hydroxide ions (OH⁻), characterized by a pH greater than 7.
pH Scale: Ranges from 0 (strong acid) to 14 (strong base), with 7 being neutral.

Solution: A homogeneous mixture of solute (substance dissolved) and solvent (substance doing the dissolving).
Concentration: Amount of solute in a given volume of solution, typically expressed in molarity (mol/L).

Organization: Elements arranged by increasing atomic number and grouped by similar properties.
Periodic Trends:
- Atomic radius: Decreases across a period, increases down a group.
- Electronegativity: Increases across a period, decreases down a group.
- Ionization energy: Energy required to remove an electron, increases across a period, decreases down a group.

Hydrocarbons: Compounds consisting solely of hydrogen and carbon.
- Alkanes: Saturated hydrocarbons (single bonds).
- Alkenes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons (at least one double bond).
- Alkynes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons (at least one triple bond).
Functional Groups: Specific groups of atoms that determine the characteristics and reactivity of organic compounds (e.g., alcohols, carboxylic acids).

Titration: Method to determine concentration of a solution.
Chromatography: Technique for separating mixtures based on different affinities.
Spectroscopy: Study of the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation.

Always wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE).
Familiarize with Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for chemicals used.
Know emergency procedures and locations of safety equipment (eye wash, fire extinguisher, first aid kit).

Matter: Defined as anything with mass that occupies space.
States of Matter: Includes solid, liquid, gas, and plasma.
Atoms: The fundamental building blocks of matter consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Atomic Number: Indicates the number of protons in an atom's nucleus, determining the element's identity.
Mass Number: The sum of an atom's protons and neutrons, reflecting its total nuclear particles.
Elements: Pure substances represented by symbols, consisting of one kind of atom (e.g., H for hydrogen).
Compounds: Formed through the chemical bonding of two or more different elements (e.g., H₂O for water).

Ionic Bonds: Created when electrons are transferred between atoms, forming charged ions.
Covalent Bonds: Formed by sharing electrons between atoms.
Metallic Bonds: Characterized by a delocalization of electrons among a structure of metal atoms.

Reactants: Substances that undergo transformation during a chemical reaction.
Products: New substances generated as a result of a chemical reaction.
Types of Reactions:
- Synthesis: Combination of elements/compounds (A + B → AB).
- Decomposition: Breakdown of a compound (AB → A + B).
- Single Replacement: One element replaces another in a compound (A + BC → B + AC).
- Double Replacement: Exchange of components between two compounds (AB + CD → AD + CB).
- Combustion: Reaction of a hydrocarbon with oxygen producing CO₂ and H₂O.

Mole: A quantity unit that equals Avogadro's number (6.022 x 10²³) of particles.
Molar Mass: The mass of one mole of a substance expressed in grams per mole (g/mol).
Stoichiometry: Involves calculating the quantities of reactants and products in chemical reactions based on balanced equations.

Acids: Substances that donate protons (H⁺) and have a pH less than 7.
Bases: Substances that accept protons or release hydroxide ions (OH⁻) with a pH greater than 7.
pH Scale: Ranges from 0 (strong acid) to 14 (strong base), with 7 indicating neutrality.

Solution: A homogenous mixture comprising a solute dissolved in a solvent.
Concentration: The amount of solute in a specified volume of solution, typically stated in molarity (mol/L).

Organization: Elements are arranged by increasing atomic number and grouped by similar chemical properties.
Trends:
- Atomic Radius: Decreases across a period and increases down a group.
- Electronegativity: Increases across a period and decreases down a group.
- Ionization Energy: The energy needed to remove an electron; increases across a period and decreases down a group.

Energy: Defined as the capacity to perform work or transfer heat.
Endothermic Reactions: Reactions that absorb energy from their surroundings.
Exothermic Reactions: Reactions that release energy to their surroundings.

Hydrocarbons: Organic compounds made exclusively of carbon and hydrogen.
Alkanes: Saturated hydrocarbons with single carbon-carbon bonds.
Alkenes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons containing at least one double bond.
Alkynes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons with at least one triple bond.
Functional Groups: Specific atom groups in organic compounds that influence their chemical properties (e.g., hydroxyl for alcohols, carboxyl for carboxylic acids).

Titration: A method employed to determine the concentration of a solution.
Chromatography: A separation technique based on the different affinities of substances.
Spectroscopy: The examination of how matter interacts with electromagnetic radiation.

Always use proper personal protective equipment (PPE).
Understand Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for each chemical utilized.
Be aware of emergency protocols and the locations of safety gear (e.g., eye wash stations, fire extinguishers, first aid kits).