Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space.
Atoms: Basic units of matter; consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Elements: Pure substances made up of only one type of atom (e.g., oxygen, carbon).
Compounds: Substances formed from two or more elements chemically bonded (e.g., water, CO2).

Ionic Bonds: Formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another; creates charged ions.
Covalent Bonds: Formed when atoms share electrons; can be single, double, or triple bonds.
Metallic Bonds: Involves the sharing of free electrons among a lattice of metal atoms.

Solids: Definite shape and volume; particles are closely packed.
Liquids: Definite volume but take the shape of their container; particles are less tightly packed.
Gases: No definite shape or volume; particles are far apart and move freely.
Plasma: Ionized gas with free electrons and ions, found in stars.

Reactants: Substances that undergo change during a chemical reaction.
Products: Substances formed as a result of a chemical reaction.
Types of Reactions:
- Synthesis: Two or more substances combine to form a new compound.
- Decomposition: A single compound breaks down into two or more simpler products.
- Single Replacement: An element replaces another in a compound.
- Double Replacement: Exchange of ions between two compounds.
- Combustion: Reaction of a substance with oxygen to produce energy, usually in the form of heat and light.

Groups/Families: Vertical columns; elements have similar properties (e.g., alkali metals, halogens).
Periods: Horizontal rows; represent increasing atomic number.
Metals, Nonmetals, Metalloids: Metals are conductive, malleable, and ductile; nonmetals are poor conductors; metalloids have properties of both.

Acids: Substances that donate protons (H+) in solution; have a pH less than 7.
Bases: Substances that accept protons or donate hydroxide ions (OH-) in solution; have a pH greater than 7.
Neutralization: Reaction between an acid and a base to produce water and salt.

Hydrocarbons: Compounds made solely of carbon and hydrogen; can be aliphatic (straight or branched chains) or aromatic (ring structures).
Functional Groups: Specific groups of atoms that determine the characteristics of organic compounds (e.g., -OH for alcohols, -COOH for carboxylic acids).

Mole Concept: A mole represents 6.022 x 10^23 particles; used for counting atoms/molecules.
Balancing Equations: Ensures the law of conservation of mass; the number of atoms for each element must be the same on both sides of a reaction.

Reaction Rate: Speed at which reactants are converted to products; influenced by concentration, temperature, and catalysts.
Catalysts: Substances that increase reaction rates without being consumed in the process.

Dynamic Equilibrium: State where the rate of forward reaction equals the rate of reverse reaction.
Le Chatelier's Principle: If a system at equilibrium is disturbed, the system shifts in a direction that counteracts the disturbance.

Matter encompasses anything with mass and volume, serving as the foundation of physical sciences.
Atoms are the fundamental units of matter, comprising protons (positively charged), neutrons (neutral), and electrons (negatively charged).
Elements are pure substances defined by the presence of only one kind of atom, such as oxygen and carbon.
Compounds are combinations of two or more elements chemically bonded together, exemplified by water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2).

Ionic bonds occur when electrons are transferred between atoms, resulting in the formation of charged ions.
Covalent bonds form through the sharing of electrons, which can manifest as single, double, or triple bonds depending on the number of shared electron pairs.
Metallic bonds involve the sharing of free electrons among a lattice structure of metal atoms, contributing to conductivity.

Solids possess a fixed shape and volume, with tightly packed particles that vibrate in place.
Liquids maintain a definite volume but adapt to the shape of their container due to loosely packed particles.
Gases lack both a fixed shape and volume, as particles are widely spaced and move freely and rapidly.
Plasma is a state of ionized gas prevalent in stars, consisting of free electrons and positive ions.

Reactants are the initial substances that participate in a chemical reaction, while products are the resulting substances.
Synthesis reactions create new compounds by combining multiple substances.
Decomposition reactions break down a single compound into two or more simpler components.
Single replacement reactions involve one element substituting another within a compound.
Double replacement reactions entail an exchange of ions between two compounds, producing new compounds.
Combustion reactions involve a substance reacting with oxygen, producing energy, usually manifested as heat and light.

Elements are organized in groups (vertical columns) with shared properties, such as alkali metals and halogens.
Periods (horizontal rows) indicate an increase in atomic number across the table.
Metals are generally conductive, malleable, and ductile, while nonmetals are poor conductors. Metalloids exhibit characteristics of both categories.

Acids are substances that release protons (H+) in solution, typically presenting a pH less than 7.
Bases accept protons or provide hydroxide ions (OH-) in solution, indicating a pH greater than 7.
Neutralization reactions occur between acids and bases, producing water and salt as byproducts.

Hydrocarbons consist solely of carbon and hydrogen and can exist as aliphatic (either straight or branched chains) or aromatic (ring-shaped) structures.
Functional groups are specific atom clusters in organic molecules that define chemical properties, such as -OH for alcohols and -COOH for carboxylic acids.

The mole concept represents a counting unit, quantified as approximately 6.022 x 10^23 particles, fundamental for quantifying atoms and molecules.
Balancing chemical equations is crucial for maintaining the law of conservation of mass, ensuring equal numbers of each atom on both sides of the equation.

Endothermic reactions absorb heat from their surroundings, resulting in a drop in temperature.
Exothermic reactions release heat into their surroundings, typically increasing ambient temperature.
Enthalpy (ΔH) is a thermodynamic property that quantifies the heat content of a system.

Reaction rates indicate how fast reactants convert to products and are influenced by factors like concentration, temperature, and the presence of catalysts.
Catalysts facilitate reactions by speeding up the process without undergoing permanent changes themselves.

Dynamic equilibrium occurs when the rate of the forward reaction equals that of the reverse reaction, creating a stable condition.
Le Chatelier's Principle states that if an equilibrium system is disturbed, it will adjust to minimize that disturbance, shifting in one direction to restore balance.