Basic Concepts in Chemistry

Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space.
- States of Matter: Solid, liquid, gas, and plasma.
Atoms: Basic unit of matter.
- Composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
- Atomic Number: Number of protons in an atom.
- Mass Number: Total number of protons and neutrons.
Molecules: Two or more atoms bonded together.
Elements: Pure substances made of one type of atom.
- Listed in the Periodic Table.
Compounds: Substances formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements.

Ionic Bonds: Formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another.
- Results in positively and negatively charged ions.
Covalent Bonds: Formed when two atoms share electrons.
Metallic Bonds: Involves the pooling of electrons among a lattice of metal atoms.

Types of Reactions:
- Synthesis: Two or more reactants combine to form a product.
- Decomposition: A single compound breaks down into two or more products.
- Single Replacement: One element replaces another in a compound.
- Double Replacement: Exchange of ions between two compounds.
Balancing Equations: Ensuring the same number of each type of atom on both sides of the equation.

Mole Concept:
- 1 mole = 6.022 x 10²³ particles (Avogadro's number).
Molar Mass: Mass of one mole of a substance, expressed in grams per mole (g/mol).
Conversions:
- Mass (g) to moles using molar mass.
- Moles to particles using Avogadro's number.

Acids: Substances that donate protons (H⁺ ions).
- Examples: HCl, H₂SO₄.
Bases: Substances that accept protons or donate hydroxide ions (OH⁻).
- Examples: NaOH, KOH.
pH Scale: Measures the acidity or basicity of a solution.
- pH < 7: Acidic
- pH = 7: Neutral
- pH > 7: Basic

Endothermic Reactions: Absorb heat (positive ΔH).
Exothermic Reactions: Release heat (negative ΔH).
Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed.

Hydrocarbons: Compounds composed of hydrogen and carbon.
- Types: Alkanes, alkenes, alkynes.
Functional Groups: Specific groups of atoms that give compounds characteristic properties.
- Examples: Alcohols (-OH), Carboxylic acids (-COOH).

Salts: Ionic compounds formed from the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base.
Transition Metals: Elements that have variable oxidation states and can form colored compounds.

Titration: Technique used to determine the concentration of a solution by reacting it with a standard solution.
Chromatography: Method for separating mixtures based on different affinities of substances to stationary and mobile phases.
Spectroscopy: Technique used to analyze the interaction of light with matter to determine composition.

Matter is defined as anything that has mass and occupies space.
The four states of matter are solid, liquid, gas, and plasma.
Atoms are the fundamental units of matter, made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Atomic number indicates the quantity of protons in an atom.
Mass number represents the sum of protons and neutrons in an atom.
Molecules consist of two or more atoms bonded together.
Elements are pure substances containing only one type of atom and are listed in the Periodic Table.
Compounds result from the chemical combination of two or more different elements.

Ionic bonds occur when electrons are transferred between atoms, creating charged ions.
Covalent bonds arise from the sharing of electrons between two atoms.
Metallic bonds involve a collective sharing of electrons among a lattice of metal atoms.

Synthesis reactions combine two or more reactants to yield a single product.
Decomposition reactions break down one compound into two or more simpler substances.
Single replacement reactions see one element displace another in a compound.
Double replacement reactions involve the exchange of ions between two compounds.
Balancing equations ensures equal numbers of each type of atom on both sides of a reaction.

The mole concept defines one mole as 6.022 x 10²³ particles, known as Avogadro's number.
Molar mass, expressed in grams per mole (g/mol), specifies the mass of one mole of a substance.
Conversions between grams and moles utilize the molar mass, while conversions between moles and particles rely on Avogadro's number.

Acids are substances that donate protons (H⁺ ions), like HCl and H₂SO₄.
Bases are substances that accept protons or provide hydroxide ions (OH⁻), such as NaOH and KOH.
The pH scale measures acidity and basicity: a pH less than 7 indicates acidity, exactly 7 denotes neutrality, and greater than 7 indicates basicity.

Endothermic reactions absorb heat, indicated by a positive change in enthalpy (ΔH).
Exothermic reactions release heat, signaled by a negative ΔH.
The Law of Conservation of Energy asserts that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only transformed.

Hydrocarbons are compounds made solely of hydrogen and carbon.
Types of hydrocarbons include alkanes (single bonds), alkenes (double bonds), and alkynes (triple bonds).
Functional groups are specific atoms or groups of atoms that impart distinctive properties to organic compounds, such as alcohols (-OH) and carboxylic acids (-COOH).

Salts are ionic compounds produced from the neutralization of an acid by a base.
Transition metals exhibit variable oxidation states and are known for forming colored compounds.

Titration is a method to determine the concentration of a solution by reacting it with a standardized solution.
Chromatography separates mixtures based on the differing affinities of substances for stationary and mobile phases.
Spectroscopy analyzes how light interacts with matter to determine the composition of substances.