Balancing Chemical Equations & Reaction Types

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Questions and Answers

Which aspect of the tracheal system in insects facilitates efficient gas exchange?

  • The direct delivery of oxygen to individual cells. (correct)
  • The presence of hemocyanin in the hemolymph.
  • The ability to perform physical gill respiration under water.
  • The rhythmic contraction of body walls to move air.

What structural adaptation enables segments of the arthropod exoskeleton to move relative to one another?

  • A hydrostatic skeleton.
  • Muscles directly attached to the inside of the exoskeleton.
  • Sclerites of thickened chitin.
  • A flexible membrane connecting hardened plates. (correct)

How does hemolymph enter the heart of arthropods in their open circulatory system?

  • Through capillaries that directly connect to the heart.
  • By direct diffusion across the heart's outer membrane.
  • Via ostia, which are valved openings in the heart wall. (correct)
  • Through a closed network of veins leading to the heart.

Which feeding strategy is least likely to be observed among crustaceans, considering their diverse feeding habits?

<p>Chemoautotrophy, deriving nutrition from inorganic compounds. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do symbiotic microorganisms play in the diet of some arthropods?

<p>They facilitate the digestion of complex plant materials. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If an arthropod species relies on book lungs for respiration, it would also likely possess what?

<p>A specialized structure of thin, parallel plates facilitating gas exchange with hemolymph. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do Malpighian tubules contribute to osmoregulation and excretion in arthropods?

<p>By actively transporting ions and waste into the gut lumen, followed by water reabsorption. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the proventriculus (gizzard) found in some arthropods?

<p>Mechanical breakdown of food. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the adaptive significance of arthropods molting their exoskeleton?

<p>To allow for growth and shedding of parasites. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is the role of the arthropod's hypodermis?

<p>Secretion of a new exoskeleton. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Arthropod exoskeleton

The outer layer of arthropods, a hard cuticle made mainly of chitin.

Molting (Lining)

The process of shedding the old exoskeleton to allow for growth.

Tracheae in Arthropods

Respiratory organs of terrestrial arthropods. Air enters through spiracles and diffuses through the tracheal system.

Open circulatory system

An open circulatory system in which hemolymph circulates in the body cavity.

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Malpighian tubules

Excretory organs in arthropods that remove nitrogenous wastes from hemolymph and function in osmoregulation.

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Arthropod Chemoreceptors

Appendages modified for sensing the environment.

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Tympanal organs

A sensory organ used for detecting sound.

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Ommatidia

Each unit of a compound eye.

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Nerve Ganglia

The two layered nerve cells that surround the esophagus

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Digestive Gland

A structure that secretes digestive enzymes

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Study Notes

Chemical Equations

  • Reactants are located on the left side, products on the right.
  • The arrow signifies the chemical reaction, indicating its direction.
  • Example: $2Mg(s) + O_2(g) \implies 2MgO(s)$.

Balancing Equations

  • Matter is conserved during a chemical reaction.
  • The number of atoms of each element must be identical on both sides of the equation.
  • Example: $CH_4(g) + 2O_2(g) \implies CO_2(g) + 2H_2O(g)$.

Types of Reactions

  • Combination: $A + B \implies AB$
  • Decomposition: $AB \implies A + B$
  • Single Replacement: $A + BC \implies B + AC$
  • Double Replacement: $AB + CD \implies AD + CB$
  • Combustion involves rapid reactions producing a flame, often with oxygen as a reactant.

Formula Weights

  • Formula weight relates to the sum of the atomic weights in a chemical formula.
  • Molecular weight refers to the sum of atomic weights in a molecule.

Percent Composition

  • Percent Composition is calculated as (Parts / Whole) × 100.
  • $%$ element $= \frac{(\text{# of atoms of element}) \times (\text{atomic weight of element})}{\text{formula weight of compound}} \times 100$

Avogadro's Number

  • Avogadro's number is denoted as $N_A = 6.02 \times 10^{23}$.
  • This is the number of atoms found in 12 g of $^{12}C$.
  • A mole contains Avogadro's number of molecules or formula units.

Molar Mass

  • Molar mass represents the mass of 1 mole of a substance.
  • For an element, the molar mass is equivalent to its atomic weight.
  • Formula weight and molar mass share the same numerical value.

Limiting Reactant

  • The limiting reactant is present in the smallest stoichiometric amount.

Theoretical Yield

  • Theoretical yield is the maximum product amount based on the limiting reactant.
  • Actual yield refers to the product amount obtained in reality.
  • Percent Yield $= \frac{\text{Actual}}{\text{Theoretical}} \times 100$

Examenul de bacalaureat național 2024

  • Se punctează orice modalitate de rezolvare corectă a cerinÈ›elor.
  • Nu se acordă punctaje parÈ›iale. Nu se acordă punctaje din oficiu.

SUBIECTUL I

Nr. crt. Răspuns Punctaj
1. c 4p
2. a 4p
3. a 4p
4. d 4p
5. b 4p

SUBIECTUL al II-lea

  • Răspuns corect: 6, 10, 14, 18, 22, 26
    • se acordă câte 1p. pentru fiecare număr conform cerinÈ›ei (6*1p= =6p.)
  • Răspuns corect:
    • pentru antet program corect - 2p
    • pentru declarare corectă a variabilelor - 2p
    • pentru citire corectă - 1p
    • pentru afiÈ™are corectă - 1p
    • pentru instrucÈ›iunea/instrucÈ›iunile de atribuire corectă/corecte - 3p
    • pentru corectitudinea globală a secvenÈ›ei - 3p
    • readln(a,b);
      aux:=a;
      a:=b;
      b:=aux;
      write(a,' ',b);
      
      sau
      readln(a,b);
      a:=a+b;
      b:=a-b;
      a:=a-b;
      write(a,' ',b);
      
  • Răspuns corect:
    • pentru structura repetitivă repeat…until corectă - 2p
    • pentru iniÈ›ializare corectă - 1p
    • pentru atribuire corectă - 1p
    • pentru condiÈ›ia until corectă - 6p
    • s:=0;
      repeat
      read(x);
      s:=s+x;
      until s>99;
      

SUBIECTUL al III-lea

  • Răspuns corect:
    • pentru antet subprogram corect - 1p
      • (structură, tipul subprogramului, parametri)
    • pentru declararea corectă a variabilelor locale - 1p
    • pentru identificarea unui divizor al numărului, conform cerinÈ›ei - 2p
    • pentru determinarea sumei divizorilor conform cerinÈ›ei - 4p
    • pentru returnarea valorii corecte - 2p
  • Răspuns corect:
    • pentru operaÈ›ii cu fiÈ™iere: declarare, pregătire în vederea citirii, citire din fiÈ™ier - 1p
    • pentru determinarea valorii cerute (minimei/maximei) - 6p
    • pentru afiÈ™area valorii/valorilor suport conform cerinÈ›ei - 3p
  • Răspuns corect:
    • pentru antet program corect - 1p
    • pentru declararea corectă a variabilelor - 1p
    • pentru citire corectă - 1p
    • pentru construirea corectă în memorie a tabloului (matrice) cerut - 4p
    • pentru afiÈ™area corectă a tabloului conform cerinÈ›ei - 3p

MÃ¥l och strategier

Vision

  • Varje elev nÃ¥r sin fulla potential.

Verksamhetsidé

  • Att skapa en trygg, stimulerande och utvecklande lärmiljö där elever utvecklar kunskaper och färdigheter.

Prioriterade mål

Pedagogik

  • MÃ¥l: Öka elevers mÃ¥luppfyllelse och förbättra studieresultaten.
  • Strategier:
    • Implementera formativ bedömning i alla ämnen.
    • Utveckla individualiserade läroplaner.
    • Använda digitala verktyg för att förbättra lärandet.

Elevhälsa

  • MÃ¥l: Förbättra elevers välbefinnande och minska stress.
  • Strategier:
    • Erbjuda kurser i mindfulness och stresshantering.
    • Stärka elevhälsoteamet.
    • Skapa en tryggare skolmiljö genom antimobbningsprogram.

Kompetensutveckling

  • MÃ¥l: Stärka lärarnas kompetens inom nya pedagogiska metoder.
  • Strategier:
    • Regelbundna workshops och seminarier.
    • Kollegialt lärande.
    • Externa föreläsare.

Resurser

  • MÃ¥l: Optimera användningen av skolans resurser.
  • Strategier:
    • Effektivisera budgetprocessen.
    • Söka externa bidrag.
    • Investera i uppdaterad teknik.

Samverkan

  • MÃ¥l: Förbättra samarbetet mellan skola, hem och samhälle.
  • Strategier:
    • Regelbundna föräldramöten.
    • Samarbetsprojekt med lokala företag.
    • Öppna hus och evenemang.

Uppföljning och utvärdering

  • Kontinuerlig uppföljning av mÃ¥l och strategier genom enkäter, intervjuer och analys av studieresultat.

Algèbre Linéaire et Géométrie Vectorielle

Chapitre 1 Vecteurs dans $\mathbb{R}^n$

1.1 Introduction

  • Ce chapitre présente les vecteurs dans $\mathbb{R}^n$, leurs opérations algébriques(addition et multiplication scalaire) et leurs propriétés.
  • On définit la notion de combinaison linéaire de vecteurs et on l'illustre géométriquement dans $\mathbb{R}^2$ et $\mathbb{R}^3$.

1.2 L'espace vectoriel $\mathbb{R}^n$

Définition 1.1

  • Pour tout entier positif n, on définit $\mathbb{R}^n$ comme l'ensemble des n-uplets ordonnés de nombres réels :
  • $\mathbb{R}^n = {(x_1, x_2,..., x_n) | x_1, x_2,..., x_n \in \mathbb{R} }$
  • Un élément de $\mathbb{R}^n$ est appelé un vecteur.

Exemple 1.1

  • $\mathbb{R}^1 = \mathbb{R}$ est l'ensemble des nombres réels.
  • $\mathbb{R}^2 = {(x, y) | x, y \in \mathbb{R} }$ est l'ensemble des couples denombres réels. On peut identifier $\mathbb{R}^2$ avec le plan cartésien.
  • $\mathbb{R}^3 = {(x, y, z) | x, y, z \in \mathbb{R} }$ est l'ensemble des triplets de nombres réels. On peut identifier $\mathbb{R}^3$ avec l'espace cartésien à trois dimensions.
  • $\mathbb{R}^n $ peut être visualisé comme un espace cartésien à n dimensions.

Définition 1.2

  • Soient $\vec{u} = (u_1, u_2,..., u_n)$ et $\vec{v} = (v_1, v_2,..., v_n)$ deux vecteurs dans $\mathbb{R}^n$.
  • Égalité : $\vec{u} = \vec{v}$ si et seulement si $u_i = v_i$ pourtout $i = 1,..., n$.
  • Addition : $\vec{u} + \vec{v} = (u_1 + v_1, u_2 + v_2,..., u_n + v_n)$.
  • Multiplication scalaire : Pour tout scalaire $c \in \mathbb{R}$,$c\vec{u} = (cu_1, cu_2,..., cu_n)$.

Exemple 1.2

  • Dans $\mathbb{R}^4$, soient $\vec{u} = (1, -2, 0, 3)$ et $\vec{v} = (2, 1, -1, 0)$. Alors:
  • $\vec{u} + \vec{v} = (1+2, -2+1, 0+(-1), 3+0) = (3, -1, -1, 3)$
  • $2\vec{u} = (2(1), 2(-2), 2(0), 2(3)) = (2, -4, 0, 6)$
  • $-1\vec{v} = (-1(2), -1(1), -1(-1), -1(0)) = (-2, -1, 1, 0)$

Propriétés 1.1

  • Pour tous vecteurs $\vec{u}, \vec{v}, \vec{w} \in \mathbb{R}^n$ et tous scalaires $a, b \in \mathbb{R}$:
  • (a) $\vec{u} + \vec{v} = \vec{v} + \vec{u}$ (commutativité de l'addition)
  • (b) $(\vec{u} + \vec{v}) + \vec{w} = \vec{u} + (\vec{v} + \vec{w})$ (associativité de l'addition)
  • (c) Il existe un vecteur $\vec{0} \in \mathbb{R}^n$, appelé le vecteur nul, tel que $\vec{u} + \vec{0} = \vec{u}$ (existence d'un vecteur nul)
  • (d) Pour tout vecteur $\vec{u} \in \mathbb{R}^n$, il existe un vecteur $-\vec{u} \in \mathbb{R}^n$ tel que $\vec{u} + (-\vec{u}) = \vec{0}$ (existence d'un inverse additif)
  • (e) $a(\vec{u} + \vec{v}) = a\vec{u} + a\vec{v}$ (distributivité par rapport à l'addition de vecteurs)
  • (f) $(a + b)\vec{u} = a\vec{u} + b\vec{u}$ (distributivité par rapport à l'addition de scalaires)
  • (g) $a(b\vec{u}) = (ab)\vec{u}$ (associativité de la multiplication scalaire)
  • (h) $1\vec{u} = \vec{u}$ (identité multiplicative)
  • Preuve: Découle directement des définitions de l'addition et de la multiplication scalaire.

Définition 1.3

  • Une combinaison linéaire de vecteurs $\vec{v_1}, \vec{v_2},..., \vec{v_k} \in \mathbb{R}^n$ est un vecteur de la forme:
  • $c_1\vec{v_1} + c_2\vec{v_2} +... + c_k\vec{v_k}$
  • où $c_1, c_2,..., c_k$ sont des scalaires.

Exemple 1.3

  • Soient $\vec{v_1} = (1, 2, -1)$, $\vec{v_2} = (6, 4, 2)$ et $\vec{v_3} = (-4, -1, 8)$ dans $\mathbb{R}^3$. Alors, le vecteur $\vec{w} = (1, -8, -5)$ est une combinaison linéaire de $\vec{v_1}$, $\vec{v_2}$ et $\vec{v_3}$ puisque:
  • $-3\vec{v_1} + \frac{1}{2}\vec{v_2} + 0\vec{v_3} = (-3, -6, 3) + (3, 2, 1) + (0, 0, 0) = (0, -4, 4)$
    • (Note: Il y a une erreur dans le document, la combinaison linéaire correcte donnant (1,-8,-5) est: $2\vec{v_1} - \frac{1}{2}\vec{v_2} + 0\vec{v_3} = (2, 4, -2) + (-3, -2, -1) + (0, 0, 0) = (-1, 2, -3)$)

Interprétation géométrique dans $\mathbb{R}^2$ et $\mathbb{R}^3$

  • Dans $\mathbb{R}^2$ et $\mathbb{R}^3$, un vecteur peut être représenté par une flèche partant de l'origine.
  • L'addition de vecteurs correspond à la règle du parallélogramme.
  • La multiplication scalaire change la longueur du vecteur et inverse sa direction si le scalaire est négatif.
  • Une combinaison linéaire de vecteurs correspond à une som me pondérée de ces vecteurs.

Capítulo 2 Espacios Vectoriales

2.1 Definición de Espacio Vectorial

  • Un espacio vectorial es un conjunto no vacío $V$ de objetos, llamados vectores, en el que se han definido dos operaciones: la suma y la multiplicación por un escalar (número real), sujetas a los diez axiomas siguientes

Axioms for Vector Spaces:

  1. Closure under addition: If $\mathbf{u}$ and $\mathbf{v}$ are in $V$, then $\mathbf{u} + \mathbf{v}$ is in $V$.
  2. Commutativity of addition: $\mathbf{u} + \mathbf{v} = \mathbf{v} + \mathbf{u}$
  3. Associativity of addition: $\mathbf{u} + (\mathbf{v} + \mathbf{w}) = (\mathbf{u} + \mathbf{v}) + \mathbf{w}$
  4. Existence of a zero vector: There exists a vector $\mathbf{0}$ in $V$ such that $\mathbf{u} + \mathbf{0} = \mathbf{u}$ for all $\mathbf{u}$ in $V$
  5. Existence of additive inverse: For each $\mathbf{u}$ in $V$, there exists a vector $-\mathbf{u}$ in $V$ such that $\mathbf{u} + (-\mathbf{u}) = \mathbf{0}$
  6. Closure under scalar multiplication: If $k$ is a scalar and $\mathbf{u}$ is in $V$, then $k\mathbf{u}$ is in $V$.
  7. Distributivity of scalar multiplication with respect to vector addition: $k(\mathbf{u} + \mathbf{v}) = k\mathbf{u} + k\mathbf{v}$
  8. Distributivity of scalar multiplication with respect to scalar addition:$(k + l)\mathbf{u} = k\mathbf{u} + l\mathbf{u}$
  9. Associativity of scalar multiplication: $k(l\mathbf{u}) = (kl)\mathbf{u}$
  10. Identity multiplication: $1\mathbf{u} = \mathbf{u}$

2.2 Subespacios

  • Definición: Un subespacio de un espacio vectorial $V$ es un subconjunto $H$ de $V$ que satisface las siguientes tres condiciones:
    1. El vector cero $\mathbf{0}$ está en $H$.
    2. Clausura bajo la suma: Si $\mathbf{u}$ y $\mathbf{v}$ están en $H$, entonces $\mathbf{u} + \mathbf{v}$ está en $H$. (Cerradura bajo la suma)
    3. Clausura bajo la multiplicación escalar: Si $k$ es un escalar y $\mathbf{u}$ está en $H$, entonces $k\mathbf{u}$ está en $H$. (Cerradura bajo la multiplicación escalar)

Teorema

  • Si $\mathbf{v}_1, \mathbf{v}_2,..., \mathbf{v}_r$ son vectores en un espacio vectorial $V$, entonces: $H = span{\mathbf{v}_1, \mathbf{v}_2,..., \mathbf{v}_r}$ es un subespacio de $V$. Además, $H$ es el subespacio más pequeño de $V$ que contiene a $\mathbf{v}_1, \mathbf{v}_2,..., \mathbf{v}_r$, en el sentido de que cualquier otro subespacio de $V$ que contenga a $\mathbf{v}_1, \mathbf{v}_2,..., \mathbf{v}_r$ debe contener a $H$.

2.3 Independencia Lineal

Definición

  • Si $S = {\mathbf{v}_1, \mathbf{v}_2,..., \mathbf{v}_r}$ es un conjunto de vectores, entonces la ecuación: $k_1\mathbf{v}_1 + k_2\mathbf{v}_2 +... + k_r\mathbf{v}_r = \mathbf{0}$ tiene al menos una solución, a saber: $k_1 = 0, k_2 = 0,..., k_r = 0$
  • Si esta es la única solución, entonces $S$ se denomina linealmente independiente. Si hay otras soluciones, entonces $S$ se denomina linealmente dependiente.

2.4 Base y Dimensión

Definición

  • Si $V$ es un espacio vectorial y $S = {\mathbf{v}_1, \mathbf{v}_2,..., \mathbf{v}_n}$ es un subconjunto de $V$, entonces $S$ se denomina base para $V$ si:
    1. $S$ es linealmente independiente.
    2. $S$ genera a $V$ (es decir, $V = span(S)$).

Definición

  • La dimensión de un espacio vectorial $V$, denotada por $dim(V)$, se define como el número de vectores en una base para $V$. Además, se define la dimensión del espacio vectorial ${\mathbf{0}}$ como cero.

2.5 Rango, Nulidad y Teorema de la Dimensión

  • Sea $A$ una matriz de $m \times n$:

Definición

  • El rango de $A$ es la dimensión del espacio de columnas de $A$.

Definición

  • Def: La nulidad de A es la dimensión del espacio nulo de A.

Teorema

  • Si $A$ es una matriz de $m \times n$, entonces: $rango(A) + nulidad(A) = n$

Reglas de Inferencia

  • Rules that allows you to derive valid conclusion based on premises

Modus Ponens (MP)

  • Form:
  • P → Q
  • P
  • ∴ Q
  • If P → Q & P is true then Q is True example:; If it's raining, then the ground is wet is the same as, It's Raining

∴ The Ground is Wet

Modus Tollens (MT)

  • Form:
  • P → Q
  • ¬Q
  • ∴ ¬P
  • If P → Q & Q is false :. P is false example: If its snowing it's cold ∴. If not cold, it's not snowing.

Silogismo Hipotético (SH)

  • Form:
  • P → Q
  • Q → R
  • ∴ P → R
  • If P → Q & Q → R, P → R Example: If study hard : . Will Pass Examen, :. If Pass Examen, : . Will be Happy, ∴ Study Hard :. Will be Happy

Silogismo Disyuntivo (SD)

  • Form:
  • P ∨ Q
  • ¬P
  • ∴ Q
  • If P Or Q and P is False ∴ Q must be true Example: Either Film or Stay Home, Not Going to Cinema ∴ Stay at Home

Adición (Ad)

  • Form:
  • P
  • ∴ P ∨ Q
  • If P Then P or Q Example: Have a Dog ∴ Have Dog or Cat

Simplificación (Simp)

  • Form:
  • P ∧ Q
  • If P and Q: .P Example: An Apple and Banana, .· Is an apple

Conjunción (Conj)

  • Form:
  • P
  • Q
  • ∴ P ∧ Q
  • If P & Q Then P and Q Example: Have an apple and banana, .· Have Apple and banana

Doble Negación (DN)

  • Form:
  • P ⟷ ¬¬P
  • Equivalence True P or False = ¬¬P Example: "Not True and Not Happy as "I Am Happy"

Leyes de Morgan

  • (1) ¬(P ∧ Q) ≡ (¬P ∨ ¬Q)
  • La negación de una conjunción es equivalente a la disyunción de las negaciones
  • (2) ¬(P ∨ Q) ≡ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)
  • La negación de una disyunción es equivalente a la conjunción de las negaciones

Ley Conmutativa

  • (1) (P ∨ Q) ≡ (Q ∨ P)
  • (2) (P ∧ Q) ≡ (Q ∧ P)

Ley Asociativa

  • (1) [P ∨ (Q ∨ R)] ≡ [(P ∨ Q) ∨ R]
  • (2) [P ∧ (Q ∧ R)] ≡ [(P ∧ Q) ∧ R]

Ley Distributiva

  • (1) [P ∧ (Q ∨ R)] ≡ [(P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R)]
  • (2) [P ∨ (Q ∧ R)] ≡ [(P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R)]

Algorithmic Complexity

Algorithmic Complexity

  • It's a measure of how much time (time complexity) and memory (space complexity) it takes for an algorithm to solve a problem as a function of the input size.

  • Time Complexity: How the execution time grows as the input grows.

  • Space Complexity: How much additional memory is used as the input grows.

Why?

  • Performance: Helps to choose the most efficient algorithm.
  • Scalability: Predicts how an algorithm will perform with large datasets.
  • Resource Management: Important for resource-constrained environments.

How?

Name Notation Characteristics Example
Constant O(1) Execution time doesn't depend on input size Accessing an element in an array by index
Logarithmic O(log n) Halving the input size each step Binary search
Linear O(n) Execution time grows linearly with the input size Searching for an element in an unsorted array
Log-Linear O(n log n) Combination of linear and logarithmic Merge sort, quicksort
Quadratic O(n^2) Execution time grows quadratically with the input size Bubble sort, selection sort
Cubic O(n^3) Execution time grows cubically with the input size Matrix multiplication
Exponential O(2^n) Execution time doubles with each addition to the input dataset Finding all subsets of a set
Factorial O(n!) Execution time grows factorially with the input size Traveling salesman problem

Big O Notation

Describes the upper bound of an algorithm's complexity (worst-case scenario).

  • O(n): "Order of n" - implies linear time complexity.
  • O(n^2): "Order of n squared" - implies quadratic time complexity.
  • O(1): "Order of 1" - implies constant time complexity.

Examples

O(1) - Constant Time:
bool isFirstElementNull(const std::vector& inputData) {
    return !inputData.empty() ? inputData == 0 : false;
}
  • No matter the size of inputData, this function only ever perform

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