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Questions and Answers
The meridians are semi-great circles joining the North and South ______.
The meridians are semi-great circles joining the North and South ______.
poles
The Prime Meridian is the datum for defining ______.
The Prime Meridian is the datum for defining ______.
Longitude
The parallels of latitude lie in an East-______ direction.
The parallels of latitude lie in an East-______ direction.
West
A Rhumb line cuts all meridians at the same ______.
A Rhumb line cuts all meridians at the same ______.
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All parallels of latitude are ______ lines.
All parallels of latitude are ______ lines.
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The network formed on a map by the prime meridian, meridians, equator, and parallels of latitude is called the ______.
The network formed on a map by the prime meridian, meridians, equator, and parallels of latitude is called the ______.
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Meridians cross the Equator at ______ degrees.
Meridians cross the Equator at ______ degrees.
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The distance along a Rhumb line is not the shortest distance between two points unless the Rhumb line is a ______ or a great circle.
The distance along a Rhumb line is not the shortest distance between two points unless the Rhumb line is a ______ or a great circle.
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The arcs that are concave towards the pole are referred to as ______.
The arcs that are concave towards the pole are referred to as ______.
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The speed of an aircraft relative to the ground is known as ______.
The speed of an aircraft relative to the ground is known as ______.
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The direction in which the longitudinal axis of an aircraft points is called ______.
The direction in which the longitudinal axis of an aircraft points is called ______.
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True Air Speed is the Rectified or Calibrated Air Speed corrected for ______.
True Air Speed is the Rectified or Calibrated Air Speed corrected for ______.
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The speed at which the wind is blowing is referred to as ______.
The speed at which the wind is blowing is referred to as ______.
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The angular difference between the required track and the Track Made Good is known as ______.
The angular difference between the required track and the Track Made Good is known as ______.
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The speed of an aircraft through the air is called ______.
The speed of an aircraft through the air is called ______.
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Indicated Air Speed is the direct reading on the dial of the Air Speed ______.
Indicated Air Speed is the direct reading on the dial of the Air Speed ______.
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A 'day' may be defined as the length of time taken for the Earth to rotate once about its axis measured against a celestial body, e.g., the ______ or a star.
A 'day' may be defined as the length of time taken for the Earth to rotate once about its axis measured against a celestial body, e.g., the ______ or a star.
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Measurements against a star are called '______' and against the Sun are called 'solar'.
Measurements against a star are called '______' and against the Sun are called 'solar'.
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The civil day begins at ______ when the mean sun is on the observer’s anti-meridian, and it ends at the next midnight.
The civil day begins at ______ when the mean sun is on the observer’s anti-meridian, and it ends at the next midnight.
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The interval that elapses between two successive transits of the actual sun across the same meridian is an apparent ______.
The interval that elapses between two successive transits of the actual sun across the same meridian is an apparent ______.
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The time interval between two successive transits of the mean sun across the same meridian is called a mean ______.
The time interval between two successive transits of the mean sun across the same meridian is called a mean ______.
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In one mean solar day, the mean sun moves westward from the meridian and completes one circuit of ______ degrees longitude in the 24 mean solar hours.
In one mean solar day, the mean sun moves westward from the meridian and completes one circuit of ______ degrees longitude in the 24 mean solar hours.
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Local mean time is the time according to the mean ______.
Local mean time is the time according to the mean ______.
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When the mean sun transits (crosses) a particular meridian, the Local Mean Time (LMT) at all places on that meridian is ______ hrs.
When the mean sun transits (crosses) a particular meridian, the Local Mean Time (LMT) at all places on that meridian is ______ hrs.
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A map is normally a representation of an area of land, giving details that are not required by the ______, such as a street map or road atlas.
A map is normally a representation of an area of land, giving details that are not required by the ______, such as a street map or road atlas.
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A chart usually represents an area in less detail and has features which are identifiable from the ______.
A chart usually represents an area in less detail and has features which are identifiable from the ______.
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It is difficult to represent the spherical Earth on a flat ______.
It is difficult to represent the spherical Earth on a flat ______.
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A chart projection is the method the ______ uses to display a certain portion of the Earth’s surface.
A chart projection is the method the ______ uses to display a certain portion of the Earth’s surface.
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For a chart to be conformal and to have ______ correctly represented, meridians of longitude and parallels of latitude must cut at right angles.
For a chart to be conformal and to have ______ correctly represented, meridians of longitude and parallels of latitude must cut at right angles.
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The ideal chart is an impossibility, but it is important that bearing and ______ are correctly represented.
The ideal chart is an impossibility, but it is important that bearing and ______ are correctly represented.
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Orthomorphism is a Greek word meaning correct ______.
Orthomorphism is a Greek word meaning correct ______.
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There are 3 general types of projection surfaces: Azimuthal/Plane, ______, and Conical.
There are 3 general types of projection surfaces: Azimuthal/Plane, ______, and Conical.
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The angle between the heading and track is known as ______.
The angle between the heading and track is known as ______.
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The Air Vector consists of Heading and True Air ______.
The Air Vector consists of Heading and True Air ______.
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The Wind Vector consists of Wind Direction and Wind ______.
The Wind Vector consists of Wind Direction and Wind ______.
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The resultant vector from joining the Air Vector and Wind Vector is known as the Ground ______.
The resultant vector from joining the Air Vector and Wind Vector is known as the Ground ______.
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The Ground Vector is always drawn with ______ direction arrows.
The Ground Vector is always drawn with ______ direction arrows.
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In practical applications, pilots typically use an analogue navigation ______ for calculations.
In practical applications, pilots typically use an analogue navigation ______ for calculations.
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When drawing the Air Vector, the direction is indicated by the heading of ______T.
When drawing the Air Vector, the direction is indicated by the heading of ______T.
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For the wind from 240°, the Wind Vector will actually point in the direction of ______T.
For the wind from 240°, the Wind Vector will actually point in the direction of ______T.
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You are flying from J to K, which is a required track of 045oT. You find that your position is 80 nm outbound from J and 4 nm left of the required track. What is your track made good? Answer: ______˚T.
You are flying from J to K, which is a required track of 045oT. You find that your position is 80 nm outbound from J and 4 nm left of the required track. What is your track made good? Answer: ______˚T.
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You are flying from L to M, which is a required track of 220oT. You find that your position is 45 nm outbound from L and 3 nm right of the required track. What is your track made good? Answer: ______˚T.
You are flying from L to M, which is a required track of 220oT. You find that your position is 45 nm outbound from L and 3 nm right of the required track. What is your track made good? Answer: ______˚T.
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You are flying from N to P, which is a required track of 315oT. You find that your position is 40 nm outbound from N and 6 nm left of the required track. What is your track made good? Answer: ______˚T.
You are flying from N to P, which is a required track of 315oT. You find that your position is 40 nm outbound from N and 6 nm left of the required track. What is your track made good? Answer: ______˚T.
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An aircraft leaves A to fly to B, 95 nm distance. Having flown 35 nm, the aircraft position is found from a pinpoint that is 7 nm right of track. What is the track error? Answer: ______˚ right.
An aircraft leaves A to fly to B, 95 nm distance. Having flown 35 nm, the aircraft position is found from a pinpoint that is 7 nm right of track. What is the track error? Answer: ______˚ right.
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An aircraft leaves A to fly to B, 95 nm distance. After finding its position to be 7 nm right of track, what alteration of heading is required to fly direct to B? Answer: ______˚ left.
An aircraft leaves A to fly to B, 95 nm distance. After finding its position to be 7 nm right of track, what alteration of heading is required to fly direct to B? Answer: ______˚ left.
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The required track from L to M is ______oT.
The required track from L to M is ______oT.
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When flying from J to K, being 4 nm left of the required track affects the track made good, resulting in an adjustment of ______˚.
When flying from J to K, being 4 nm left of the required track affects the track made good, resulting in an adjustment of ______˚.
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The distance from A to B is ______ nm.
The distance from A to B is ______ nm.
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Study Notes
General Navigation 1
- The Earth is an oblate spheroid, meaning it's flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator.
- The difference between the polar and equatorial diameters is approximately 1/300th the equatorial diameter. This is 27 statute miles or 23 nautical miles.
- The Earth's equatorial diameter is about 40,000 km
- The Earth's polar diameter is about 40,000 km
- The Earth's axis is tilted at an angle of 66.5 degrees relative to its orbital plane around the sun.
- The Earth's rotation axis is 23.5 degrees relative to the orbital plane.
- The Earth's orbit around the Sun is elliptical, with the Sun at one focus.
- The Earth rotates on its axis in an anti-clockwise direction when viewed from above the North Pole.
- The Earth's rotation axis is the Polar Axis.
- The equator is a great circle that lies at 90° to the polar axis.
- The meridians are semi-great circles joining the North and South poles; they indicate true North-South direction.
- Meridians cross the equator at 90 degrees.
- The prime meridian (or Greenwich meridian) passes through Greenwich, England, and is used as the reference for measuring longitude.
- Parallels of latitude are small circles on the Earth's surface parallel to the equator.
- A rhumb line is a line on the Earth's surface that cuts all meridians at the same angle.
- The graticule is the network of meridians and parallels of latitude on a map or globe.
Sexagesimal System
- Direction in degrees, from 0° to 360°.
- Used in navigation.
- North is 000° or 360°.
- East is 090°.
- South is 180°.
- West is 270°.
Cartesian Coordinate System
- A system to define the position of any point on any two-dimensional plane.
- Uses x and y axes. Origin is (0,0).
- Points are represented as coordinates (x,y).
Great Circle
- A great circle is a circle on the Earth's surface whose center is the same as the Earth's center.
- The shortest distance between any two points on the earth (excluding the poles).
Small Circle
- A circle on the Earth's surface which does not pass through the center of the Earth.
- The parallels of latitude are an example of small circles.
The Equator
- The equator is a great circle that divides the Earth into the Northern and Southern hemispheres.
- The equator is a reference point for measuring latitude and is the equivalent to the X-axis of the Cartesian system.
Meridians
- Meridians are semi-great circles.
- Meridians indicate the true North-South direction.
- Meridians are the lines on a map that run in an North-South direction.
Prime Meridian
- Runs through Greenwich, England
- The reference for measuring longitude.
- Equivalent to the Y-axis of the Cartesian system.
Parallel of Latitude
- The parallels of latitude are circles on the Earth´s surface that are parallel to the equator; they are used to indicate the Northern and Southern position from the equator.
- They lie in an East-West direction.
Rhumb Line
- A rhumb line is a line on the Earth's surface that cuts all meridians at a constant angle.
- Normally, flights of less than 1000 nm are flown along a Rhumb Line
Graticule
- The network of meridians and parallels of latitude forms the graticule.
- Provides a framework to understand position and direction on the Earth´s surface.
- Like a grid on graph paper.
Angular Measurement
- The sexagesimal system is used for measuring angles in navigation.
- Angles are expressed in degrees, minutes, and seconds.
- A degree (°) is 1/360th part of a full circle.
- Each degree is divided into 60 minutes (′)
- Each minute is divided into 60 seconds (″).
Latitude and Longitude
- Latitude is the angular distance of a point north or south of the equator.
- Longitude is the angular distance of a point east or west of the prime meridian.
Latitude
- A point's distance in degrees or arc from the equator.
- Can be measured from 0º to 90º Ν or 0º to 90º S.
Longitude
- A point´s distance in degrees or arc east or west from the prime meridian.
- Can be measured from 0° to 180° E or 0° to 180° W.
Special Latitudes
- Arctic Circle: 66°34' North.
- Tropic of Cancer: 23°26' North.
- Equator : 0º
- Tropic of Capricorn: 23°26' South.
- Antarctic Circle: 66°34' South.
- North Pole: 90º Ν.
- South Pole: 90º S.
Length Units
- km: 1/10,000th of the average distance between the Equator and either Pole.
- Statute Mile (sm): 5280 feet.
- Nautical Mile (nm): 6080 feet.
- 1 nautical mile = 1 minute of latitude.
- Conversions between nautical miles, statute miles, kilometres, and feet are available.
Great Circle Distances
- The shortest distance between any two points on the earth (except the poles).
- If both points are on the same hemisphere, you calculate the difference between the latitudes and multiple by 60 to calculate in nautical miles.
- If the points are on different hemispheres, you calculate the sum of the latitudes and multiply by 60 to calculate in nautical miles.
Departure (East-West Distances)
- Departure is the distance between two meridians on a specific parallel of latitude (usually in nautical miles).
- Departure is greatest at the equator.
- The larger the angle of longitude, the larger the departure.
- The departure formula is Departure (nm) = D Long x cos of Lat.
Directions
- True Direction: The direction relative to the geographic North and South poles.
- Magnetic Direction: The horizontal direction influenced only by the Earth's magnetic field.
- Variation: The angle between true north and magnetic north, measured in degrees east or west of true north.
- Heading: The direction the aircraft's longitudinal axis is pointing.
- Deviation: The angle between magnetic north and the compass needle, measured in degrees, east or west of magnetic north.
- Isogonal Lines: Connecting places with equal magnetic variation.
- Agonal lines: Connecting places of zero, or no magnetic variation.
Solar System - Planetary Orbit - Kepler's Laws
- The Earth orbits the Sun in an ellipse.
- The radius vector sweeps out equal areas in equal periods.
- The square of the orbital period is proportional to the cube of its average distance from the sun.
Time
- "A day" is the time the Earth takes to rotate once on its axis.
- Civil Day: The interval between successive transits of the mean sun's anti-meridian.
- Mean Solar Day: The time between successive transits of the mean sun across the same meridian. One solar day is 360°/15° = 24 hours.
- Local Mean Time (LMT): LMT = UTC + Arc/Time (longitude in hours).
- Universal Coordinated Time (UTC): The reference for all practical navigation purposes; equivalent to GMT. The calculation to convert LMT to VTC is related to the apparent movement of the sun on its trajectory over the Earth from east to west.
- International Date Line (IDL): The line of longitude (approximately 180°). The change of date is based on whether you are traveling from east to west, and affects the calendar.
General Navigation 2 - Terrestrial and Aircraft Magnetism
- Magentism: A force of nature or power apparent in Earth and the surrounding atmosphere.
- Magnetic Field: The area around a magnet where magnetic influence is felt.
- Poles of a Magnet: The regions on a magnet with the strongest magnetic forces.
- Red and Blue Poles: Conventionally, the end of a magnet that points towards north is called a 'north-seeking pole' or the 'red pole', and the end pointing to south is called the 'south-seeking pole' or the 'blue pole'
- Magnetic and Non-Magnetic Materials: Some materials (ferrous) are magnetizable and others (non-ferrous are not); this affects aircraft compasses
- Hard and Soft Iron: Hard iron exhibits permanent magnetism, while soft iron shows temporary/induced magnetism affected by magnetizing fields.
- Terrestrial Magnetism: Earth's magnetic field influenced by a huge permanent magnet.
- Magnetic Dip: The angle a magnetized needle makes with the Earth's surface at a given location.
- Magnetic Meridian: Imaginary line joining magnetic poles.
- Field Strength: Total force exerted by Earth's magnetic field at a location along the magnetic field.
- Aircraft Magnetism: Material and electrical devices cause a local magnetic field, affecting compasses.
- Parameters of Aircraft Magnetism: Measured by three parameters and nine parameters for soft iron
General Navigation 2 - Charts
- Chart: A representation of a portion of the Earth's surface, often used by aviators.
- Map: A more general representation used for land features.
- Chart Projection: The method of transforming the curved Earth onto a flat surface.
- Properties of an Ideal Chart: Correct scale, conformal or preserving shapes; important for accurate navigation.
General Navigation 2 - Triangle of Velocities
- Air Speed (TAS): Speed of the aircraft relative to the air
- Indicated Air Speed (IAS): The reading on the aircraft's airspeed indicator.
- Calibrated Air Speed (CAS): IAS corrected for instrument and position errors.
- True Air Speed (TAS): CAS corrected for effects of air density (temperature, altitude).
- Ground Speed: Speed of the aircraft relative to the ground. Affected by wind velocity.
- Wind Speed: Speed and direction of the wind
- Heading: Direction of the aircraft's longitudinal axis.
- Track: The intended path of the aircraft over the ground.
- Track Made Good (TMG): The actual path of the aircraft over the ground. Affected by wind.
- Drift Angle: The angular difference between track and TMG . Measured from track's port or starboard
- Triangle of Velocities: A diagram used to calculate ground speed and track from TAS, and wind speed and direction.
General Navigation 2 - 1 in 60 rule
- 1 in 60 rule: A rule used for calculating track error in nautical miles, or the turn needed from track error, to achieve the required track, in degrees. It is an approximation.
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Test your knowledge on key aviation navigation concepts, including meridians, parallels of latitude, and the various speeds applicable to aircraft. This quiz covers essential terms and principles required for understanding navigation in the airspace. Join to see how well you grasp these fundamental aviation concepts!
