Aviation Chapter 2: Ground Operations

Ground Operations

• Ground operations are a critical phase of flight where safety begins and ends
• Pilots must ensure regulatory requirements, pilot readiness, airplane condition, flight environment, and external pressures are assessed

Airworthiness Requirements

• Airworthiness means the aircraft conforms to its type design and is in a safe mechanical condition for flight (14 CFR part 3, section 3.5(a))
• Owner/operator is responsible for maintenance, and pilot in command is responsible for determining airworthiness (14 CFR part 91, sections 91.7(a) and (b))

Preflight Assessment

• Includes reviewing logbooks to ensure:
  • Annual inspection within the preceding 12 calendar months (14 CFR part 91, section 91.409(a))
  • 100-hour inspection, if operated for hire (14 CFR part 91, section 91.409(b))
  • Transponder certification within the preceding 24 calendar months (14 CFR part 91, section 91.413)
  • Static system and encoder certification, within the preceding 24 calendar months, for IFR flight in controlled airspace (14 CFR part 91, section 91.411)
  • 30-day VOR equipment check when using the VOR system of radio navigation for IFR flight (14 CFR part 91, section 91.171)
  • ELT inspection within the last 12 months (14 CFR part 91, section 91.207(d))
  • ELT battery due (14 CFR part 91, section 91.207(c))
  • Current status of life-limited parts per Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) (14 CFR part 91, section 91.417)
  • Status, compliance, logbook entries for airworthiness directives (ADs) (14 CFR part 91, section 91.417(a)(2)(v))
  • Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Form 337, Major Repair or Alteration (14 CFR part 91, section 91.417)
  • Inoperative equipment (14 CFR part 91, section 91.213)

Visual Preflight Inspection

• Includes inspecting:
  • Airplane's general appearance
  • Landing gear control, master, alternator, and magneto switches
  • Fuel selectors, trim wheels, and mechanical air-driven gyro instruments
  • Avionics master switch, circuit breakers, and flight instruments
  • Compass correction card and magnetic compass
• Checking for signs of distress or failure, such as cracks, bubbles, or improper fluid levels

Outer Wing Surfaces and Tail Section

• Inspect for signs of deterioration, distortion, or load-related stresses concentrated along spar lines and attach points
• Check for loose or missing rivets or screws, and inspect around rivet heads
• Inspect leading edges of wing, horizontal stabilizer, and vertical stabilizer for impact damage or structural deformity

Fuel and Oil

• Use the correct grade of fuel for the aircraft
• Check fuel quantity, grade, and quality before flight
• Verify fuel caps are securely replaced after fueling
• Check for fuel stains or leakage, and inspect for water and sediment contamination
• Check oil level and type, and maintain the recommended level to ensure lubrication and heat transfer### Preflight Assessment
• Oil levels on the oil dipstick may show higher levels when the engine is cold than when it's warm and recently shut down after a flight.
• Care should be taken to keep the dipstick from coming into contact with dirty or grimy areas.
• Oil levels should be inspected and verified.
• Piston airplane engines typically have oil reservoirs with capacities between 4 and 8 quarts, with 6 quarts being common.

Oil Condition and Consumption

• Oil color provides an insight into its operating condition.
• Oils darken in color as operating hours increase, which is common and expected.
• Rapid darkening of oil in the first few hours after an oil change may indicate engine cylinder problems.
• Piston airplane engines consume a small amount of oil during normal operation.
• Oil consumption varies depending on many factors, and increased or sudden changes in consumption should be investigated by qualified maintenance personnel.

Pilot Responsibility

• The pilot is responsible for the safe outcome of the flight and should oversee line service personnel.
• The pilot should monitor and ensure the correct quantity, quality, and grade of fuel and oil are added, and all fuel and oil caps are securely replaced during refueling or oil addition.

Landing Gear, Tires, and Brakes

• The landing gear, tires, and brakes allow the airplane to maneuver on the ground and should be inspected to ensure positive control.
• Landing gear inspection may be hindered by wheel pants or other obstacles.
• The pilot should use a flashlight to inspect covered areas.
• The following should be inspected:
  • Landing gear struts and adjacent ground for leaking hydraulic fluid
  • Landing gear for grease, oil, and fluid without any undue amounts
  • Landing gear alignment and height consistency
  • Shock struts for proper inflation, cleanliness, and freedom from damage
  • Axles, links, collars, over-center locks, push rods, forks, and fasteners for cracks, corrosion, and rust
  • Tires for proper inflation, remaining tread, and normal wear pattern
  • Wheel hubs for cracks, corrosion, and rust, and secure fasteners
  • Brakes and brake systems for rust, corrosion, and secure fasteners
  • Shimmy damper for security and freedom from hydraulic fluid leaks

Engine and Propeller

• The pilot should identify and mitigate any potential hazards prior to flight.
• The engine and propeller should be inspected for proper function prior to operation.
• The following should be inspected:
  • Cowling for loose, worn, missing, or damaged fasteners, rivets, and latches
  • Propeller spinner for dents, cracks, corrosion, and proper alignment
  • Propeller blades for erosion, nicks, cracks, pitting, corrosion, and security
  • Propeller hub for oil leaks and secure fasteners
  • Alternator/generator drive belts for proper tension and signs of wear
  • Inside the cowling for oil leaks, fuel dye, or loose objects
  • Exhaust system for white stains caused by exhaust leaks
  • Heat muffs for general condition and signs of cracks or leaks
  • Air filter for dirt or restrictions, and proper servicing

Risk and Resource Management

• Risk management is a formalized process for identifying and mitigating hazards and assessing the consequences and benefits of accepted risk.
• Hazard identification is the critical first step of the risk management process.
• Hazards can be conditions, events, objects, or circumstances that could lead to or contribute to an unplanned or undesired event.
• Examples of hazards include:
  • Marginal weather or environmental conditions
  • Lack of pilot qualification, currency, or proficiency for the intended flight
• Risk is the future impact of a hazard that is not controlled or eliminated.
• Risk assessment determines the degree of risk and whether it is worth the outcome of the planned activity.
• Risk mitigation involves reducing or eliminating the risk.
• Resource management involves the effective use of all available resources, including human, equipment, and information.

Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM)

• SRM is essential for a successful flight.
• SRM integrates:
  • Situational awareness
  • Human resource management
  • Task management
  • Aeronautical decision-making (ADM)
• Situational awareness is the accurate perception of operational and environmental factors that affect the flight.
• Human resource management requires effective use of all available resources, including human, equipment, and information.
• Task management involves planning ahead to reduce workload and prevent erosion of performance.
• Aeronautical decision-making (ADM) is the process of recognizing and managing errors to minimize their effects.### Ramp Operations
• The pilot needs to manage refueling operations, passenger and baggage security and loading, ramp and taxi operations, and standard ramp signals.
• During refueling, the pilot should remove passengers, witness the refueling, and ensure correct fuel and quantity is dispensed.
• The pilot should ensure passenger safety by cautioning them to move on the surface only as directed and having an escort if not under direct supervision.

Taxiing Signals

• Standard aircraft taxiing signals are used to communicate with ground personnel, such as those published in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) and Advisory Circular 00-34.

Engine Starting

• The pilot should ensure the ramp area is clear of persons, equipment, and hazards before engine start.
• The pilot should check what is behind the airplane prior to engine start and mitigate the hazard of debris being blown into persons or property.
• The pilot should turn on anti-collision lights and position (navigation) lights for night operations.
• The pilot should call "CLEAR" out of the side window and wait for a response before engaging the starter.
• The pilot should depress the wheel brakes and keep one hand on the throttle to manage the initial starting engine speed.

Engine Operations

• The pilot should set the engine revolutions per minute (rpm) to the AFM/POH-prescribed setting after engine start.
• The pilot should monitor oil pressure after engine start to ensure it reaches the AFM/POH-specified value.
• The pilot should avoid continuous starter operation for periods longer than 30 seconds without a cool-down period.

Hand Propping

• Hand propping should only be performed by persons who are competent with hand propping procedures and in accordance with the AFM/POH.
• The procedures for hand propping are hazardous and require a team of two properly trained people.
• The person directing the procedure should ensure the brakes are set and exercise controls as directed by the person pulling the propeller.

Taxiing

• Taxiing is the controlled movement of the airplane under its own power while on the surface.
• The pilot should maintain situational awareness of the ramp, parking areas, taxiways, runway environment, and persons, equipment, and aircraft at all times.
• The pilot should be familiar with the parking, ramp, and taxi environment and review the complete taxi plan.
• The pilot should be vigilant of the entire area around the airplane to ensure safe clearance from obstructions.
• The pilot should maintain a safe taxiing speed and proceed at a cautious speed on congested or busy ramps.
• The pilot should slow down before attempting a turn and use rudder pedals and brakes to steer the airplane.
• The pilot should test the brakes for proper operation as soon as the airplane is put in motion.

Ground Operations

• Ground operations are a critical phase of flight where safety begins and ends
• Pilots must ensure regulatory requirements, pilot readiness, airplane condition, flight environment, and external pressures are assessed

Airworthiness Requirements

• Airworthiness means the aircraft conforms to its type design and is in a safe mechanical condition for flight (14 CFR part 3, section 3.5(a))
• Owner/operator is responsible for maintenance, and pilot in command is responsible for determining airworthiness (14 CFR part 91, sections 91.7(a) and (b))

Preflight Assessment

• Includes reviewing logbooks to ensure:
  • Annual inspection within the preceding 12 calendar months (14 CFR part 91, section 91.409(a))
  • 100-hour inspection, if operated for hire (14 CFR part 91, section 91.409(b))
  • Transponder certification within the preceding 24 calendar months (14 CFR part 91, section 91.413)
  • Static system and encoder certification, within the preceding 24 calendar months, for IFR flight in controlled airspace (14 CFR part 91, section 91.411)
  • 30-day VOR equipment check when using the VOR system of radio navigation for IFR flight (14 CFR part 91, section 91.171)
  • ELT inspection within the last 12 months (14 CFR part 91, section 91.207(d))
  • ELT battery due (14 CFR part 91, section 91.207(c))
  • Current status of life-limited parts per Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) (14 CFR part 91, section 91.417)
  • Status, compliance, logbook entries for airworthiness directives (ADs) (14 CFR part 91, section 91.417(a)(2)(v))
  • Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Form 337, Major Repair or Alteration (14 CFR part 91, section 91.417)
  • Inoperative equipment (14 CFR part 91, section 91.213)

Visual Preflight Inspection

• Includes inspecting:
  • Airplane's general appearance
  • Landing gear control, master, alternator, and magneto switches
  • Fuel selectors, trim wheels, and mechanical air-driven gyro instruments
  • Avionics master switch, circuit breakers, and flight instruments
  • Compass correction card and magnetic compass
• Checking for signs of distress or failure, such as cracks, bubbles, or improper fluid levels

Outer Wing Surfaces and Tail Section

• Inspect for signs of deterioration, distortion, or load-related stresses concentrated along spar lines and attach points
• Check for loose or missing rivets or screws, and inspect around rivet heads
• Inspect leading edges of wing, horizontal stabilizer, and vertical stabilizer for impact damage or structural deformity

Fuel and Oil

• Use the correct grade of fuel for the aircraft
• Check fuel quantity, grade, and quality before flight
• Verify fuel caps are securely replaced after fueling
• Check for fuel stains or leakage, and inspect for water and sediment contamination
• Check oil level and type, and maintain the recommended level to ensure lubrication and heat transfer### Preflight Assessment
• Oil levels on the oil dipstick may show higher levels when the engine is cold than when it's warm and recently shut down after a flight.
• Care should be taken to keep the dipstick from coming into contact with dirty or grimy areas.
• Oil levels should be inspected and verified.
• Piston airplane engines typically have oil reservoirs with capacities between 4 and 8 quarts, with 6 quarts being common.

Oil Condition and Consumption

• Oil color provides an insight into its operating condition.
• Oils darken in color as operating hours increase, which is common and expected.
• Rapid darkening of oil in the first few hours after an oil change may indicate engine cylinder problems.
• Piston airplane engines consume a small amount of oil during normal operation.
• Oil consumption varies depending on many factors, and increased or sudden changes in consumption should be investigated by qualified maintenance personnel.

Pilot Responsibility

• The pilot is responsible for the safe outcome of the flight and should oversee line service personnel.
• The pilot should monitor and ensure the correct quantity, quality, and grade of fuel and oil are added, and all fuel and oil caps are securely replaced during refueling or oil addition.

Landing Gear, Tires, and Brakes

• The landing gear, tires, and brakes allow the airplane to maneuver on the ground and should be inspected to ensure positive control.
• Landing gear inspection may be hindered by wheel pants or other obstacles.
• The pilot should use a flashlight to inspect covered areas.
• The following should be inspected:
  • Landing gear struts and adjacent ground for leaking hydraulic fluid
  • Landing gear for grease, oil, and fluid without any undue amounts
  • Landing gear alignment and height consistency
  • Shock struts for proper inflation, cleanliness, and freedom from damage
  • Axles, links, collars, over-center locks, push rods, forks, and fasteners for cracks, corrosion, and rust
  • Tires for proper inflation, remaining tread, and normal wear pattern
  • Wheel hubs for cracks, corrosion, and rust, and secure fasteners
  • Brakes and brake systems for rust, corrosion, and secure fasteners
  • Shimmy damper for security and freedom from hydraulic fluid leaks

Engine and Propeller

• The pilot should identify and mitigate any potential hazards prior to flight.
• The engine and propeller should be inspected for proper function prior to operation.
• The following should be inspected:
  • Cowling for loose, worn, missing, or damaged fasteners, rivets, and latches
  • Propeller spinner for dents, cracks, corrosion, and proper alignment
  • Propeller blades for erosion, nicks, cracks, pitting, corrosion, and security
  • Propeller hub for oil leaks and secure fasteners
  • Alternator/generator drive belts for proper tension and signs of wear
  • Inside the cowling for oil leaks, fuel dye, or loose objects
  • Exhaust system for white stains caused by exhaust leaks
  • Heat muffs for general condition and signs of cracks or leaks
  • Air filter for dirt or restrictions, and proper servicing

Risk and Resource Management

• Risk management is a formalized process for identifying and mitigating hazards and assessing the consequences and benefits of accepted risk.
• Hazard identification is the critical first step of the risk management process.
• Hazards can be conditions, events, objects, or circumstances that could lead to or contribute to an unplanned or undesired event.
• Examples of hazards include:
  • Marginal weather or environmental conditions
  • Lack of pilot qualification, currency, or proficiency for the intended flight
• Risk is the future impact of a hazard that is not controlled or eliminated.
• Risk assessment determines the degree of risk and whether it is worth the outcome of the planned activity.
• Risk mitigation involves reducing or eliminating the risk.
• Resource management involves the effective use of all available resources, including human, equipment, and information.

Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM)

• SRM is essential for a successful flight.
• SRM integrates:
  • Situational awareness
  • Human resource management
  • Task management
  • Aeronautical decision-making (ADM)
• Situational awareness is the accurate perception of operational and environmental factors that affect the flight.
• Human resource management requires effective use of all available resources, including human, equipment, and information.
• Task management involves planning ahead to reduce workload and prevent erosion of performance.
• Aeronautical decision-making (ADM) is the process of recognizing and managing errors to minimize their effects.### Ramp Operations
• The pilot needs to manage refueling operations, passenger and baggage security and loading, ramp and taxi operations, and standard ramp signals.
• During refueling, the pilot should remove passengers, witness the refueling, and ensure correct fuel and quantity is dispensed.
• The pilot should ensure passenger safety by cautioning them to move on the surface only as directed and having an escort if not under direct supervision.

Taxiing Signals

• Standard aircraft taxiing signals are used to communicate with ground personnel, such as those published in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) and Advisory Circular 00-34.

Engine Starting

• The pilot should ensure the ramp area is clear of persons, equipment, and hazards before engine start.
• The pilot should check what is behind the airplane prior to engine start and mitigate the hazard of debris being blown into persons or property.
• The pilot should turn on anti-collision lights and position (navigation) lights for night operations.
• The pilot should call "CLEAR" out of the side window and wait for a response before engaging the starter.
• The pilot should depress the wheel brakes and keep one hand on the throttle to manage the initial starting engine speed.

Engine Operations

• The pilot should set the engine revolutions per minute (rpm) to the AFM/POH-prescribed setting after engine start.
• The pilot should monitor oil pressure after engine start to ensure it reaches the AFM/POH-specified value.
• The pilot should avoid continuous starter operation for periods longer than 30 seconds without a cool-down period.

Hand Propping

• Hand propping should only be performed by persons who are competent with hand propping procedures and in accordance with the AFM/POH.
• The procedures for hand propping are hazardous and require a team of two properly trained people.
• The person directing the procedure should ensure the brakes are set and exercise controls as directed by the person pulling the propeller.

Taxiing

• Taxiing is the controlled movement of the airplane under its own power while on the surface.
• The pilot should maintain situational awareness of the ramp, parking areas, taxiways, runway environment, and persons, equipment, and aircraft at all times.
• The pilot should be familiar with the parking, ramp, and taxi environment and review the complete taxi plan.
• The pilot should be vigilant of the entire area around the airplane to ensure safe clearance from obstructions.
• The pilot should maintain a safe taxiing speed and proceed at a cautious speed on congested or busy ramps.
• The pilot should slow down before attempting a turn and use rudder pedals and brakes to steer the airplane.
• The pilot should test the brakes for proper operation as soon as the airplane is put in motion.

Ground Operations

• Ground operations are a critical phase of flight where safety begins and ends
• Pilots must ensure regulatory requirements, pilot readiness, airplane condition, flight environment, and external pressures are assessed

Airworthiness Requirements

• Airworthiness means the aircraft conforms to its type design and is in a safe mechanical condition for flight (14 CFR part 3, section 3.5(a))
• Owner/operator is responsible for maintenance, and pilot in command is responsible for determining airworthiness (14 CFR part 91, sections 91.7(a) and (b))

Preflight Assessment

• Includes reviewing logbooks to ensure:
  • Annual inspection within the preceding 12 calendar months (14 CFR part 91, section 91.409(a))
  • 100-hour inspection, if operated for hire (14 CFR part 91, section 91.409(b))
  • Transponder certification within the preceding 24 calendar months (14 CFR part 91, section 91.413)
  • Static system and encoder certification, within the preceding 24 calendar months, for IFR flight in controlled airspace (14 CFR part 91, section 91.411)
  • 30-day VOR equipment check when using the VOR system of radio navigation for IFR flight (14 CFR part 91, section 91.171)
  • ELT inspection within the last 12 months (14 CFR part 91, section 91.207(d))
  • ELT battery due (14 CFR part 91, section 91.207(c))
  • Current status of life-limited parts per Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) (14 CFR part 91, section 91.417)
  • Status, compliance, logbook entries for airworthiness directives (ADs) (14 CFR part 91, section 91.417(a)(2)(v))
  • Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Form 337, Major Repair or Alteration (14 CFR part 91, section 91.417)
  • Inoperative equipment (14 CFR part 91, section 91.213)

Visual Preflight Inspection

• Includes inspecting:
  • Airplane's general appearance
  • Landing gear control, master, alternator, and magneto switches
  • Fuel selectors, trim wheels, and mechanical air-driven gyro instruments
  • Avionics master switch, circuit breakers, and flight instruments
  • Compass correction card and magnetic compass
• Checking for signs of distress or failure, such as cracks, bubbles, or improper fluid levels

Outer Wing Surfaces and Tail Section

• Inspect for signs of deterioration, distortion, or load-related stresses concentrated along spar lines and attach points
• Check for loose or missing rivets or screws, and inspect around rivet heads
• Inspect leading edges of wing, horizontal stabilizer, and vertical stabilizer for impact damage or structural deformity

Fuel and Oil

• Use the correct grade of fuel for the aircraft
• Check fuel quantity, grade, and quality before flight
• Verify fuel caps are securely replaced after fueling
• Check for fuel stains or leakage, and inspect for water and sediment contamination
• Check oil level and type, and maintain the recommended level to ensure lubrication and heat transfer### Preflight Assessment
• Oil levels on the oil dipstick may show higher levels when the engine is cold than when it's warm and recently shut down after a flight.
• Care should be taken to keep the dipstick from coming into contact with dirty or grimy areas.
• Oil levels should be inspected and verified.
• Piston airplane engines typically have oil reservoirs with capacities between 4 and 8 quarts, with 6 quarts being common.

Oil Condition and Consumption

• Oil color provides an insight into its operating condition.
• Oils darken in color as operating hours increase, which is common and expected.
• Rapid darkening of oil in the first few hours after an oil change may indicate engine cylinder problems.
• Piston airplane engines consume a small amount of oil during normal operation.
• Oil consumption varies depending on many factors, and increased or sudden changes in consumption should be investigated by qualified maintenance personnel.

Pilot Responsibility

• The pilot is responsible for the safe outcome of the flight and should oversee line service personnel.
• The pilot should monitor and ensure the correct quantity, quality, and grade of fuel and oil are added, and all fuel and oil caps are securely replaced during refueling or oil addition.

Landing Gear, Tires, and Brakes

• The landing gear, tires, and brakes allow the airplane to maneuver on the ground and should be inspected to ensure positive control.
• Landing gear inspection may be hindered by wheel pants or other obstacles.
• The pilot should use a flashlight to inspect covered areas.
• The following should be inspected:
  • Landing gear struts and adjacent ground for leaking hydraulic fluid
  • Landing gear for grease, oil, and fluid without any undue amounts
  • Landing gear alignment and height consistency
  • Shock struts for proper inflation, cleanliness, and freedom from damage
  • Axles, links, collars, over-center locks, push rods, forks, and fasteners for cracks, corrosion, and rust
  • Tires for proper inflation, remaining tread, and normal wear pattern
  • Wheel hubs for cracks, corrosion, and rust, and secure fasteners
  • Brakes and brake systems for rust, corrosion, and secure fasteners
  • Shimmy damper for security and freedom from hydraulic fluid leaks

Engine and Propeller

• The pilot should identify and mitigate any potential hazards prior to flight.
• The engine and propeller should be inspected for proper function prior to operation.
• The following should be inspected:
  • Cowling for loose, worn, missing, or damaged fasteners, rivets, and latches
  • Propeller spinner for dents, cracks, corrosion, and proper alignment
  • Propeller blades for erosion, nicks, cracks, pitting, corrosion, and security
  • Propeller hub for oil leaks and secure fasteners
  • Alternator/generator drive belts for proper tension and signs of wear
  • Inside the cowling for oil leaks, fuel dye, or loose objects
  • Exhaust system for white stains caused by exhaust leaks
  • Heat muffs for general condition and signs of cracks or leaks
  • Air filter for dirt or restrictions, and proper servicing

Risk and Resource Management

• Risk management is a formalized process for identifying and mitigating hazards and assessing the consequences and benefits of accepted risk.
• Hazard identification is the critical first step of the risk management process.
• Hazards can be conditions, events, objects, or circumstances that could lead to or contribute to an unplanned or undesired event.
• Examples of hazards include:
  • Marginal weather or environmental conditions
  • Lack of pilot qualification, currency, or proficiency for the intended flight
• Risk is the future impact of a hazard that is not controlled or eliminated.
• Risk assessment determines the degree of risk and whether it is worth the outcome of the planned activity.
• Risk mitigation involves reducing or eliminating the risk.
• Resource management involves the effective use of all available resources, including human, equipment, and information.

Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM)

• SRM is essential for a successful flight.
• SRM integrates:
  • Situational awareness
  • Human resource management
  • Task management
  • Aeronautical decision-making (ADM)
• Situational awareness is the accurate perception of operational and environmental factors that affect the flight.
• Human resource management requires effective use of all available resources, including human, equipment, and information.
• Task management involves planning ahead to reduce workload and prevent erosion of performance.
• Aeronautical decision-making (ADM) is the process of recognizing and managing errors to minimize their effects.### Ramp Operations
• The pilot needs to manage refueling operations, passenger and baggage security and loading, ramp and taxi operations, and standard ramp signals.
• During refueling, the pilot should remove passengers, witness the refueling, and ensure correct fuel and quantity is dispensed.
• The pilot should ensure passenger safety by cautioning them to move on the surface only as directed and having an escort if not under direct supervision.

Taxiing Signals

• Standard aircraft taxiing signals are used to communicate with ground personnel, such as those published in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) and Advisory Circular 00-34.

Engine Starting

• The pilot should ensure the ramp area is clear of persons, equipment, and hazards before engine start.
• The pilot should check what is behind the airplane prior to engine start and mitigate the hazard of debris being blown into persons or property.
• The pilot should turn on anti-collision lights and position (navigation) lights for night operations.
• The pilot should call "CLEAR" out of the side window and wait for a response before engaging the starter.
• The pilot should depress the wheel brakes and keep one hand on the throttle to manage the initial starting engine speed.

Engine Operations

• The pilot should set the engine revolutions per minute (rpm) to the AFM/POH-prescribed setting after engine start.
• The pilot should monitor oil pressure after engine start to ensure it reaches the AFM/POH-specified value.
• The pilot should avoid continuous starter operation for periods longer than 30 seconds without a cool-down period.

Hand Propping

• Hand propping should only be performed by persons who are competent with hand propping procedures and in accordance with the AFM/POH.
• The procedures for hand propping are hazardous and require a team of two properly trained people.
• The person directing the procedure should ensure the brakes are set and exercise controls as directed by the person pulling the propeller.

Taxiing

• Taxiing is the controlled movement of the airplane under its own power while on the surface.
• The pilot should maintain situational awareness of the ramp, parking areas, taxiways, runway environment, and persons, equipment, and aircraft at all times.
• The pilot should be familiar with the parking, ramp, and taxi environment and review the complete taxi plan.
• The pilot should be vigilant of the entire area around the airplane to ensure safe clearance from obstructions.
• The pilot should maintain a safe taxiing speed and proceed at a cautious speed on congested or busy ramps.
• The pilot should slow down before attempting a turn and use rudder pedals and brakes to steer the airplane.
• The pilot should test the brakes for proper operation as soon as the airplane is put in motion.

Ground Operations

• Experienced pilots emphasize the importance of ground operations, as it is where safe flight begins and ends.
• A pilot's margin of safety is diminished by hasty ground operations.
• Key factors to assess during ground operations include regulatory requirements, pilot readiness, airplane condition, flight environment, and external pressures.

Preflight Assessment of the Aircraft

• The visual preflight assessment mitigates airplane flight hazards and ensures the aircraft meets regulatory airworthiness standards.
• The term "airworthy" means the aircraft conforms to its type design and is in a safe condition for operation.

Aircraft Construction

• An aircraft is a device used or intended for flight, as defined in 14 CFR part 1.
• Categories of aircraft for certification of airmen include airplane, rotorcraft, glider, lighter-than-air, powered-lift, powered parachute, and weight-shift control aircraft.

Aircraft Design, Certification, and Airworthiness

• The FAA certifies three types of aviation products: aircraft, aircraft engines, and propellers.
• Airworthiness standards are outlined in Title 14 CFR and are designed to ensure aviation products are safe and free of hazardous features.
• Airworthiness certificates are classified as either "Standard" or "Special," and must be carried in the aircraft during all flight operations.

Aircraft Certification

• Airworthiness certificates are issued after a conformity inspection, which ensures the aircraft meets design and manufacturing standards.
• The airworthiness certificate remains valid as long as required maintenance and inspections are kept up to date.

Aerodynamics

• Four forces act upon an aircraft in straight-and-level, unaccelerated flight: thrust, lift, weight, and drag.
• Thrust is the forward force produced by the powerplant/propeller, which opposes or overcomes the force of drag.

Ground Operations

• Ground operations are crucial for safe flight, and experienced pilots emphasize their importance.
• Ground operations include assessing regulatory requirements, pilot readiness, airplane condition, flight environment, and external pressures.
• Pilots should allow time for flight preparation, and situational awareness begins during preparation.

Aircraft Construction

• An aircraft is defined as a device used for flight according to Title 14 CFR part 1.
• Categories of aircraft for certification of airmen include airplane, rotorcraft, glider, lighter-than-air, powered-lift, powered parachute, and weight-shift control aircraft.
• Advanced avionics aircraft refers to an aircraft with a global positioning system (GPS) navigation system and a moving map display, along with another system.

Aircraft Design, Certification, and Airworthiness

• The FAA certifies three types of aviation products: aircraft, aircraft engines, and propellers.
• Each product has been designed to a set of airworthiness standards, which are parts of Title 14 CFR.
• Airworthiness standards were developed to ensure aviation products are designed with no unsafe features.

Preflight Assessment of the Aircraft

• The visual preflight assessment mitigates airplane flight hazards and ensures the aircraft meets regulatory airworthiness standards.
• The term "airworthy" means the aircraft conforms to its type design and is in a safe mechanical condition prior to flight.
• The airworthiness certificate is issued after a conformity inspection and remains valid as long as required maintenance and inspections are kept up to date.

Aircraft Categories

• Airworthiness certificates are classified as either "Standard" or "Special".
• Standard airworthiness certificates are issued for normal, utility, acrobatic, commuter, or transport category aircraft.
• Special airworthiness certificates are issued for primary, restricted, limited category aircraft, light sport aircraft, provisional airworthiness certificates, special flight permits (ferry permits), and experimental aircraft.

Lift and Basic Aerodynamics

• Four forces act upon an aircraft in straight-and-level, unaccelerated flight: thrust, lift, weight, and drag.
• Thrust is the forward force produced by the powerplant/propeller, opposing or overcoming the force of drag.

Ground Operations

• Safe ground operations are crucial for a successful flight
• Pilots should always refer to the specific procedures and checklists provided in the AFM/POH for their airplane

Aircraft Construction

• An aircraft is a device used or intended to be used for flight according to 14 CFR part 1
• Categories of aircraft for certification of airmen include airplane, rotorcraft, glider, lighter-than-air, powered-lift, powered parachute, and weight-shift control aircraft
• An airplane is an engine-driven, fixed-wing aircraft supported in flight by the dynamic reaction of air against its wings

Aircraft Design, Certification, and Airworthiness

• The FAA certifies three types of aviation products: aircraft, aircraft engines, and propellers
• Each product has been designed to a set of airworthiness standards published in 14 CFR
• Different airworthiness standards apply to different categories of aviation products
• The FAA issues a Type Certificate (TC) for the product when it complies with applicable airworthiness standards
• A Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS) is generated, specifying the important design and operational characteristics of the aircraft, aircraft engine, or propeller

Light Sport Aircraft

• Light sport aircraft are not designed according to FAA airworthiness standards
• Instead, they are designed to a consensus of standards agreed upon in the aviation industry
• The FAA has agreed that the consensus of standards is acceptable as the design criteria for these aircraft
• Light sport aircraft do not necessarily have individually type certificated engines and propellers

Preflight Assessment

• The visual preflight assessment mitigates airplane flight hazards
• The preflight assessment ensures that the aircraft meets regulatory airworthiness standards and is in a safe mechanical condition prior to flight

Airworthiness Standards

• Different categories of aviation products have specific airworthiness standards:
  • Normal, Utility, Acrobatic, and Commuter Category Airplanes: 14 CFR part 23
  • Transport Category Airplanes: 14 CFR part 25
  • Normal Category Rotorcraft: 14 CFR part 27
  • Transport Category Rotorcraft: 14 CFR part 29
  • Manned Free Balloons: 14 CFR part 31
  • Aircraft Engines: 14 CFR part 33
  • Propellers: 14 CFR part 35
• Gliders and powered lift are considered "special classes" of aircraft and do not have their own airworthiness standards

Type Certification

• The FAA issues a Type Certificate (TC) for a product when it complies with applicable airworthiness standards
• A Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS) is generated, specifying important design and operational characteristics
• The TCDS is publicly available on the FAA website

Light Sport Aircraft

• Designed to a consensus of industry standards, not FAA airworthiness standards
• Do not have individually type certificated engines and propellers
• A TC is issued to the aircraft as a whole, including airframe, engine, and propeller

Aircraft Construction

• An aircraft is a device used for flight, according to 14 CFR part 1
• Categories of aircraft for certification of airmen include airplane, rotorcraft, glider, and others
• Aircraft can be certified as Standard or Special, with corresponding airworthiness certificates

Aircraft Design, Certification, and Airworthiness

• The FAA certifies three types of aviation products: aircraft, aircraft engines, and propellers
• Each product is designed to a set of airworthiness standards in 14 CFR
• The FAA issues an airworthiness certificate for a complete aircraft, which remains valid as long as maintenance and inspections are up to date

Lift and Basic Aerodynamics

• Four forces act upon an aircraft in straight-and-level, unaccelerated flight: thrust, lift, weight, and drag
• Thrust is the forward force produced by the powerplant/propeller, opposing or overcoming drag