Automatic vs. Controlled Thinking
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following is NOT a typical aspect of awareness as it relates to cognitive processes?

  • Awareness of potential influences on subjective states.
  • Awareness of a stimulus that triggers a response.
  • Awareness of the nutritional content of food consumed. (correct)
  • Awareness of a mental process (a chain of mental events).

Automatic thinking often involves a high degree of conscious awareness of the factors influencing one's thoughts and behaviors.

False (B)

What role do schemas play in automatic thinking?

Schemas help us connect new situations to our prior experiences.

The degree to which people are in control of initiating cognitive processes is referred to as ______.

<p>intentionality</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes 'priming' in the context of schema activation?

<p>Recent experiences that make a schema more readily accessible. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Schemas are easily changed and readily updated with new information, especially when that information contradicts existing beliefs.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Imagine a person who has a history of negative interactions. Which schema accessibility factor is MOST influential, causing them to interpret neutral social cues as hostile?

<p>Chronic accessibility (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Situation: A marketing team is working to utilize priming to increase sales. Which of the following strategies is LEAST likely to be effective based on the principles of how priming works?

<p>Employing celebrity endorsements who have no relation to the product to increase attention. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of counterfactual involves adding an action that did not originally occur?

<p>Additive counterfactual (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Engaging in counterfactual thinking always helps people cope better in future situations.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the ironic effect that can occur when one attempts thought suppression?

<p>The target thoughts become more accessible</p> Signup and view all the answers

The study of forming impressions of other people and making inferences about them is known as social ______.

<p>perception</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the nonverbal behavior with its communicative function:

<p>Facial expression = Communicates emotions Tone of voice = Conveys attitude Body posture = Indicates personality Eye gaze = Substitutes for verbal messages</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the information provided, what is the primary evolutionary benefit of accurate social perception?

<p>Ensures survival (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for when one part of the face displays one emotion while another part displays a different emotion, making it difficult to interpret the overall emotion?

<p>Affect blends (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why does cognitive load disrupt the operating processes, but not the monitoring processes, during thought suppression?

<p>Monitoring processes are automatic, while operating processes require controlled thinking. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to research, there is no gender bias in the speed and accuracy with which people judge emotions from facial expressions.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for culturally specific gestures, that differ in meaning across cultures, such as a thumbs-up?

<p>emblems</p> Signup and view all the answers

Humans directly and accurately understand facial expressions regardless of context, due to hard-wired recognition mechanisms.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The tendency for people to assume that if someone possesses one positive trait, they also possess other positive traits is known as an implicit __________ theory.

<p>personality</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the type of information used in Kelley's covariation model with its description:

<p>Consensus information = How others behave toward the same stimulus. Distinctiveness information = How the actor responds to other stimuli. Consistency information = How the actor's behavior varies toward a stimulus across time and situations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to attribution theory, attributing a person's behavior to their personality or character is an example of what?

<p>Internal attribution (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Kelley's covariation model, which combination of consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency would lead to an internal attribution for Person A’s behavior toward Person B?

<p>Low consensus, low distinctiveness, high consistency (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Insanely difficult: Provide a real-world example illustrating Kelley's covariation model where consensus is low, distinctiveness is high, and consistency is high, and explain the attribution made.

<p>Example: John laughs at Sarah's jokes, but nobody else does (low consensus). John doesn't laugh at anyone else's jokes (high distinctiveness), and John always laughs at Sarah's jokes (high consistency). Attribution: There's something uniquely funny about Sarah's jokes <em>to John</em>, thus the cause is <em>internal</em> to John rather than a universal quality of the joke or an external factor.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a task used to prime schemas?

<p>Sentence scrambles (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Self-fulfilling prophecies occur when expectations about others have no impact on how those individuals eventually behave.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for mental shortcuts that people use to make judgments quickly and efficiently?

<p>heuristics</p> Signup and view all the answers

The ____________ heuristic involves classifying something based on how similar it is to a typical case.

<p>representativeness</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of automatic thinking 'styles,' what characterizes analytic thinking?

<p>Focus on the specific properties of objects, without considering the surrounding context (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which heuristic is most likely in play when news reports that over-represent violent crime subsequently influence one’s perceptions of personal safety?

<p>Availability Heuristic (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A real estate agent initially shows potential buyers a dilapidated house with a high asking price before showing them a more reasonably priced and well-maintained property. This tactic best illustrates which cognitive heuristic?

<p>Anchoring Heuristic (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe a scenario where the representativeness heuristic might lead to a flawed judgment, even if base rate information suggests otherwise.

<p>A person might believe a quiet, introverted individual is a librarian despite there being far more farmers than librarians in the population because the individual matches their stereotype of a librarian.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of attribution do we tend to make when consistency is low?

<p>&quot;Special circumstance&quot; external attribution (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the two-step attribution process, the first step involves automatically considering situational factors.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is another name for correspondence bias?

<p>fundamental attribution error</p> Signup and view all the answers

The belief that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people is known as belief in a ______.

<p>just world</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the actor/observer difference, which of these statements is true regarding attributions?

<p>People attribute their own behavior to situational factors, but others' behavior to dispositional factors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Collectivistic cultures are more likely to make dispositional attributions of others compared to individualistic cultures.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the difference in attributions made for success versus failure, according to self-serving bias.

<p>Success is attributed to internal, dispositional factors, while failure is attributed to external, situational factors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In some collectivistic cultures, the self-serving bias can be reversed. What does this reversal typically look like?

<p>Attributing successes to external factors and failures to internal factors, emphasizing humility and self-criticism. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Awareness

Recognizing stimuli, influences, or mental processes that affect responses.

Efficient Processes

Processes that require minimal attentional resources, like automatic thoughts.

Intentionality

Control over initiating thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.

Controllability

Control over stopping or resuming thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.

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Automatic Thinking

Thoughts triggered without conscious awareness, often using schemas.

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Schemas

Mental structures organizing knowledge about the social world.

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Priming

Activating a schema through relevant experiences to influence perception.

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Chronic Accessibility

How readily a schema is activated based on prior experiences.

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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

A phenomenon where expectations about others influence their behavior, leading them to act in accordance with those expectations.

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Heuristics

Mental shortcuts that simplify decision-making and judgment, often used unconsciously.

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Availability Heuristic

Judgments based on how easily examples come to mind, which can distort perceptions.

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Representativeness Heuristic

Classifying something based on its similarity to a typical case, often ignoring relevant statistics.

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Anchoring Heuristic

Relying heavily on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions.

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Analytic Thinking

A style of thinking focusing on specific properties of objects without context.

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Holistic Thinking

A style of thinking focusing on the overall context and relationships between objects.

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Controlled Thinking

Deliberate and conscious cognitive processes, opposite of automatic thinking.

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Affect Blends

Facial expressions where different emotions are shown in different parts of the face, complicating emotional interpretation.

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Cultural Display Rules

Cultural norms that dictate how and when emotions can be publicly expressed.

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Gender Effect in Emotion Recognition

People are quicker to judge anger in male faces and happiness in female faces.

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Implicit Personality Theories

Assumptions about how specific traits correlate with others, influencing perceptions of people's personalities.

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Attribution Theory

The framework for understanding how people explain their own and others' behaviors based on internal or external factors.

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Kelley’s Covariation Model

A model for determining whether behavior is due to internal or external factors based on consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency.

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Consensus Information

Information on how others behave toward the same person, used to infer if behavior is internal or external.

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Distinctiveness Information

How a person's behavior compares across different situations, helping to determine the cause of their actions.

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Counterfactuals

Imagining alternative outcomes to past events to explore what could have happened.

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Additive Counterfactual

Adding elements to a past event that did not occur originally.

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Subtractive Counterfactual

Removing elements from a past event that occurred originally.

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Mental Practice

Visualizing a behavior or task to improve performance before actual execution.

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Thought Suppression

Effort to avoid thinking about specific thoughts or memories.

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Social Perception

How we form impressions and make inferences about other people.

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Nonverbal Behavior

Communication without words, including gestures, body language, and facial expressions.

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Low Consistency Attribution

When actions vary, we make external attributions based on special circumstances.

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Two-Step Attribution

Attribution involves initially making an internal attribution, then reconsidering situational factors.

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Correspondence Bias

The tendency to believe others' actions stem from their personality rather than the situation.

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Actor/Observer Difference

People attribute others' actions to their disposition but their own to situational factors.

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Self-Serving Attribution

Attributions vary for successes (internal) and failures (external) to maintain self-esteem.

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Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overemphasize dispositional reasons for others' behavior and overlook situational factors.

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Perceptual Salience

The prominence of people over situations, leading to dispositional attributions.

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Belief in a Just World

People's conviction that good things happen to good people and bad things to bad people.

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Study Notes

Two Kinds of Thinking

  • Low effort thinking involves automatic, habitual, emotional, and impulsive responses.
  • High effort thinking is controlled, logical, reflective, and involves problem-solving and planning.

Four Horsemen of Automaticity

  • Awareness: Conscious understanding of a stimulus or influence.
  • Efficiency: How much attention a process requires.
  • Intentionality: Level of control over initiating mental processes.
  • Controllability: Capability to suppress or stop mental processes.

Awareness

  • Awareness encompasses recognizing a stimulus, potential influences, and mental processes.
  • Automatic thinking typically occurs without conscious awareness of guiding factors.
  • In automatic thinking, people are usually unaware of elements directing their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Efficiency

  • Efficiency describes how much attentional resources a process requires.
  • Automatic thoughts and heuristics are considered very efficient.
  • People often rely on intuitive judgments, self-assessments, attributions, etc. quickly and with little effort.

Intentionality and Controllability

  • Intentionality refers to control over mental processes.
  • Controllability concerns the ability to suppress or stop mental activities.
  • Both play a role in how much people feel in control of their thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Automatic Thinking

  • Schemas: Mental structures organizing knowledge about the social world.
  • Influence what one notices, thinks about, remembers, and guides behavioral responses.
  • Influenced by personal experiences and culture; difficult to change.
  • How schemas work: Connect new situations to prior experiences, aiding in social understanding.

Why Do Schemas Exist?

  • Help organize and make sense of the world.
  • Fill in gaps in information, especially when encountering brief, confusing, or ambiguous situations.
  • Help understand and respond to quickly changing situations.

How To Prime

  • Priming refers to initiating a schema, done through certain stimuli.
  • Often through sentences, words, or images relevant to a schema.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecies

  • Schemas influence how people behave towards others, who then act in accordance with those expectations.
  • Cycle where initial expectations lead to behavior that confirms those expectations.

Embodied Cognitions

  • Bodily sensations can activate related schemas, often through mental connections (metaphors).
  • Examples include associating citrus with certain moral schemas or warmth with perceptions of friendliness.

Availability Heuristic

  • Mental judgments based on how easily information comes to mind.
  • May not always reflect the true representation of frequency or likelihood.

Representativeness Heuristic

  • Classifying things based on their resemblance to typical cases, often ignoring base-rate information.

Anchoring Heuristic

  • Judgments frequently influenced by an initial piece of information.
  • Often used in negotiations or marketing to influence decisions.

Automatic vs. Controlled Thinking

  • Automatic thinking is fast, effortless, and often unconscious.
  • Controlled thinking is slower, more effortful, and consciously processed.

Counterfactuals

  • Mentally altering past events to imagine alternative outcomes.
  • Usually arises after negative experiences.
  • Can have implications for future behavior.

Mental Practice

  • Visualizing engaging in a behavior can prepare for an activity or task.

Thought Suppression

  • Trying not to think about something—frequently backfires, which makes the thought even more accessible.

Social Perception

  • Understanding how people perceive and make judgments about each other.

Nonverbal Behavior

  • Crucial for comprehending others' emotions/attitudes, as well as social context.
  • Facial expressions, posture, tone, and other nonverbal cues carry information.

Cultural Differences

  • Nonverbal expression varies across cultures, causing differences in interpreting behaviors.

Implicit Personality Theories

  • Preconceived notions about how personality traits cluster together.
  • Leads to assumptions about people based on limited information.

Attribution Theory

  • How we explain the causes of our own and others' behaviors.
  • Internal (dispositional) attributions: Emphasize personality characteristics.
  • External (situational) attributions: Focus on situational factors.

Correspondent Inference Theory

  • Judging others' behaviors, inferring their stable dispositions based on actions.

Actor-Observer Difference

  • Tend to attribute our own actions to external factors and others' actions to internal factors.

Self-Serving Bias

  • Success is attributed to internal factors, while failure is blamed on external factors.
  • This varies culturally, with lower rates observed in collectivistic societies.

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Automatic and Controlled Thinking PDF

Description

Explore the contrast between low-effort, automatic thinking and high-effort, controlled thinking. Understand the 'Four Horsemen of Automaticity': Awareness, Efficiency, Intentionality, and Controllability. Learn how these concepts shape our cognitive processes.

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