Motor Control

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Questions and Answers

According to Kahneman's attention theory, what is equated with the process of attention?

  • Cognitive effort (correct)
  • Sensory perception
  • Motor skill execution
  • Emotional regulation

In Kahneman's model of attention, what does 'arousal level' refer to?

  • The general state of excitability of a person (correct)
  • The individual's capacity for multitasking
  • The allocation of resources to specific tasks
  • The evaluation of attention requirements of multiple tasks

What did Jacques Loeb's (1890) experiment demonstrate regarding the relationship between grip strength and mental effort?

  • Maximum grip strength increased with increased mental effort.
  • Maximum grip strength decreased with increased mental effort. (correct)
  • Maximum grip strength was not correlated with mental effort.
  • Maximum grip strength was only affected by physical fatigue.

What is a key assumption of multiple resource theories regarding attention?

<p>Individuals possess several independent resources for attention. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why can't the 'cocktail party problem' be explained by bottleneck theories of attention?

<p>Because bottleneck theories suggest all information is processed serially, but in the 'cocktail party problem' relevant information breaks through. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the dual-task procedure primarily aim to determine?

<p>The attention demands of performing simultaneous tasks (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In dual-task procedures, what is the typical role of the secondary task?

<p>To make inferences about the attention demands of the primary task (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to research on cell phone use while driving, what was observed about reaction time?

<p>Reaction time was significantly slower when using a cell phone. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What implications can be derived from Drew et al.'s (2008) study regarding the use of cell phones, comparing handheld and hands-free devices?

<p>No significant difference was found between handheld and hands-free cell phones in terms of distraction. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is 'attentional focus' defined as?

<p>The directing of attention to specific aspects of performance or the environment (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does focusing attention on the intended outcome (external focus) typically affect motor skill performance?

<p>It improves performance compared to focusing on the movements themselves (internal focus). (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the 'deautomatization-of-skills' hypothesis, what happens when a skilled individual focuses internally on their movements?

<p>Their performance deteriorates as they revert to earlier, less automatic forms of movement. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'automaticity' indicate in the context of motor skills?

<p>The ability to perform a skill with little or no demands on attention capacity (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Poldrack et al.'s research (2005) reveal about brain activity during automatized motor skills?

<p>The supplementary motor area is more active during automaticity. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is visual selective attention?

<p>The focusing of attention on relevant information in the environment (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is 'visual search' in the context of motor skills?

<p>The process of directing visual attention to locate relevant cues in the environment (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is inattention blindness?

<p>The failure to notice a fully-visible, but unexpected object because attention was engaged on some other task, event, or object (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method is most commonly used to investigate visual selective attention?

<p>Eye-movement recordings (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How have studies on racquet sports characterized the visual search strategies of skilled players?

<p>They visually search for the minimal essential information needed to determine an action. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does visual search aid in the preparation of an action?

<p>By influencing action selection, constraining of the selected action, and timing of action initiation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did studies monitoring the eye movements of novice and experienced drivers reveal?

<p>Experienced drivers tended to fixate for shorter amounts of time. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the 'quiet eye' in the context of motor skills?

<p>The final eye fixation just before movement (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When teaching effective visual search strategies, what is most important?

<p>Ensuring training is specific to the motor activity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the 'clinical application of attention', what is an important guideline for practitioners regarding skill performance?

<p>Skilled player performance is always best during optimal arousal or anxiety levels (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of 'memory'?

<p>The capacity to remember information (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of working memory?

<p>To enable people to respond to the demands of a 'right now' situation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a component of working memory?

<p>Phonological loop (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the estimated capacity of working memory?

<p>Approximately 7 items (+/- 2) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can you improve working memory and storage of information?

<p>Chunking (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a function of working memory related to motor skills?

<p>Retrieving information from long-term memory (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of long-term memory (LTM)?

<p>Unlimited storage capacity (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of 'procedural memory'?

<p>Stores information about 'how to do' specific activities (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge?

<p>Declarative knowledge includes information about what to do, whilst procedural knowledge includes information about how to perform a skill (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of 'encoding'?

<p>Transforming to-be-remembered information into a form that can be stored in memory (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why are the 'memory' testing methods divided into explicit and implicit?

<p>They are independent and rely on a different process (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Trace decay?

<p>The process of forgetting (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of Proactive interference?

<p>Activity that occurs prior to movement and remembering (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Retroactive interference?

<p>Activity that occurs after movement and after remembering (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does movement end-point location affect a person's ability to remember?

<p>Movement end-point location is easier to remember. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key factor in improving memory performance related to movement?

<p>Making the movement meaningful (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of a 'verbal label' and 'intended organization' on a movement.

<p>Improved Verbal and Intended Cues (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When the practice context resembles test context. How does it impact memory performance?

<p>Improved retention performance (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the focus of motor control theory?

<p>The behavioral and neuromuscular mechanisms that produce coordinated movement. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the 'degrees of freedom problem' in the context of motor control?

<p>The challenge of the nervous system in controlling the many independent elements involved in movement. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is coordination defined in the context of motor skills?

<p>The patterning of body and limb motions relative to the environment. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of feedback in a closed-loop control system?

<p>To detect errors and update the control center during the movement. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does an open-loop control system operate?

<p>By using pre-set instructions to guide movements without the use of feedback. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Under what conditions would the central nervous system (CNS) most likely use an open-loop control system?

<p>When executing a well-learned motor skill that is performed rapidly. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of motor control, what is a 'motor program'?

<p>A set of pre-structured muscle commands that can be adjusted by parameters. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are invariant features in the context of a Generalized Motor Program (GMP)?

<p>Elements of a movement that remain constant across different performances of a skill. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of 'parameters' in the motor program-based theory?

<p>They are specific movement features that adjust to adapt to a given situation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of motor program-based theory, what is a 'schema'?

<p>A set of rules relating past experiences, parameters, and outcomes to guide future movements. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Shapiro et al.'s (1981) study on gait characteristics found that relative time was similar within speeds when walking but different from speeds when running. What did this suggest?

<p>Walking and running are controlled by two different Generalized Motor Programs (GMPs). (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind Dynamical Systems Theory?

<p>Movements emerge from the interaction of numerous variables in the body, environment, and task. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key concept in Dynamical Systems Theory?

<p>Attractor State (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do 'control parameters' influence motor behavior according to Dynamical Systems Theory?

<p>They influence the stability and character of the order parameter. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of 'coordinative structures' (muscle synergies) in Dynamical Systems Theory?

<p>To reduce the degrees of freedom by grouping muscles to act as functional units. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does 'perception-action coupling' refer to in Dynamical Systems Theory?

<p>The utilization of environmental information to regulate movements. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'affordances' mean in the context of Dynamical Systems Theory?

<p>The opportunities for action provided by the environment based on individual characteristics. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Currently, how do motor program-based theory and dynamical systems theory stand in the field of motor control?

<p>Both theories predominate, and it is speculated that a hybrid of the two could emerge. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key takeaway for practitioners regarding the degrees of freedom problem?

<p>Practitioners should encourage learners to explore different movement solutions to control the degrees of freedom. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What considerations are essential when applying motor control theories in practice?

<p>Dysfunction of sensory input is important for proper motor skills performance. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is touch considered essential for skills involving object manipulation?

<p>Touch provides direct information about the surrounding environment and object characteristics. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where are mechanoreceptors located, and what is their primary function?

<p>In the dermis layer of skin, to provide touch, temperature, pain, and vibration information. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the absence of touch typically impact motor performance?

<p>It decreases both accuracy and consistency. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is 'proprioception'?

<p>The perception of limb, body, and head movement characteristics. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Muscle spindles, Golgi tendon organs, and joint receptors are the major types of what?

<p>Proprioceptors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What information do muscle spindles provide to the central nervous system?

<p>Changes in muscle fiber length and velocity. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of Golgi-Tendon Organs (GTOs)?

<p>Detect changes in muscle tension (force). (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does tendon vibration distort proprioceptive feedback?

<p>By creating the illusion of constant muscle stretch. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one way that research has demonstrated the influence of proprioception on movement?

<p>Studying patients with deafferentation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does proprioception have on coordination of body and/or limb segments?

<p>Decreased postural control with Achilles tendon vibration. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can vision-based movement corrections be used?

<p>For understanding when the CNS can perform in a closed loop system. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the estimated range of time required to perform vision-based movement corrections?

<p>100-160 msec. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Dynamical Systems Theory, what is an attractor?

<p>The stable state of the motor control system. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is vision our preferred source of sensory information?

<p>We rely on it more even when it gives inaccurate information. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Lee & Aronson's moving room experiment, what was observed regarding the role of vision in balance?

<p>The walls were moved giving indication that the person was moving even if they weren't, causing participants to lose balance. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a research technique for understanding vision and motor control?

<p>Eye-movement recording. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is temporal occlusion technique?

<p>Stopping the video or film at random and having the performer predict what happens next. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Without binocular vision, what do people consistently do?

<p>Underestimate distance and size. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What part of vision represents the middle 2-5° of visual field (foveal vision)?

<p>Central vision. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does peripheral vision perceive?

<p>Optical flow of the environment. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the ventral stream do for vision?

<p>Vision for perception. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does vision provide to initiate a movement?

<p>Time-to-contact object information. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of motor control, according to the presented theory?

<p>Understanding the neural and behavioral mechanisms producing coordinated movement. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is the 'degrees of freedom problem' significant in motor control theory?

<p>It addresses how the nervous system manages to control the many muscles and joints involved in motor actions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of motor skills, what does coordination specifically refer to?

<p>The patterning of head, body, and limb motions, relative to the environment. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does feedback contribute to motor control in closed-loop systems?

<p>It is used to detect errors and adjust movement patterns during the action. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining characteristic of open-loop control systems in motor control?

<p>Instructions contain all the information to carry out a planned movement. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Under what circumstances might the central nervous system (CNS) favor an open-loop control system for motor control?

<p>When executing well-learned, rapid movements where feedback use is limited. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of 'relative time' within the framework of a Generalized Motor Program (GMP)?

<p>It maintains the invariant rhythm of the movement's components. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of Generalized Motor Program (GMP) theory, what are parameters responsible for?

<p>Adapting movements to specific environmental or individual constraints. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to dynamical systems theory, how do movement patterns emerge?

<p>They arise from self-organization influenced by multiple variables in the body, environment, and task. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to dynamical systems theory, what role do 'control parameters' play in motor behavior?

<p>They gradually shift movement patterns from one coordination pattern to another. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of dynamical systems theory, what are coordinative structures (muscle synergies)?

<p>Muscle groups constrained to act as functional units. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does perception-action coupling refer to within the context of dynamical systems theory?

<p>The linking between information obtained from the environment and subsequent movements. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of dynamical systems theory, what is the meaning of the term 'affordances'?

<p>The possibilities for action based on the individual's characteristics and the environment. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one way that researchers study the role of touch in motor control?

<p>By assessing motor performance before and after anesthetizing areas of the hand. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does tactile sensory information generally influence movement accuracy?

<p>Increases accuracy, especially in tasks requiring object manipulation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of information is detected by Golgi-Tendon Organs (GTOs)?

<p>The force and tension within a muscle. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common technique used to study the role of proprioception in motor control?

<p>Using tendon vibration to distort proprioceptive feedback. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the distortion of proprioceptive feedback typically affect motor performance?

<p>Causes problems in determining limb distance and postural control. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to research, what aspect of movement is influenced by proprioception?

<p>Proprioception influences timing. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is vision considered the preferred source of sensory information?

<p>It provides more detailed and comprehensive information about the environment. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Lee and Aronson's moving room experiment, what was the key finding regarding vision and balance?

<p>Vision can override other sensory information, leading to postural adjustments based on visual input. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does event occlusion technique involve in vision and motor control research?

<p>Stopping video and film at various times. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does the absence of binocular vision have on people's judgment of distance and size?

<p>People consistently underestimate the distance and size. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary function of central vision (foveal vision) in the context of motor control?

<p>Providing detailed information for object identification. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key role of peripheral vision in motor control?

<p>Updates the CNS about movement. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the ventral stream in vision?

<p>Object identification also known as central vision. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to research, what is the approximate time required for vision-based movement corrections?

<p>100-160 msec. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Tau ($\tau$) provide to initiate a movement?

<p>Time-To-Contact. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the correct order of the components of Dynamical Systems Theory?

<p>Attractor, control parameters, coordinative synergies, order parameters, perception-action coupling, affordances. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do skill experts develop to develop coordinative strategies?

<p>All of the above. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are some points a practitioner would consider when applying theory to practice?

<p>All of the above. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the sensory components to motor control, what information is provided?

<p>All of the above. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does adding tactile events do to timing?

<p>Improves timing. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is sensory input important?

<p>All of the above. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the fundamental principle underlying the speed-accuracy tradeoff?

<p>Emphasizing accuracy in a motor skill typically leads to a reduction in movement speed. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Fitts’ Law, what two variables form the basis of predicting movement time (MT) for speed-accuracy skills?

<p>Movement distance and target size (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the relationship between the index of difficulty (ID) and movement time (MT) in Fitts' Law?

<p>MT increases linearly with increases in ID. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In practical interface design, how are Fitts' Law principles typically applied to optimize user interaction?

<p>By placing frequently used tasks closer and assigning them larger interactive buttons. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does open-loop control play in the performance of speed-accuracy skills, specifically manual aiming?

<p>It governs the initial movement initiation, setting speed and direction to bring the limb toward the target. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of manual aiming skills, how does the availability of time influence the effectiveness of closed-loop control?

<p>Sufficient time is required for visual feedback to be used effectively in generating movement corrections. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During the 'preparation phase' of manual aiming skills, what is the role of vision?

<p>To assess regulatory conditions of the environment and specify movement direction and distance. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is prehension primarily defined as in the context of motor skills?

<p>Actions involving reaching for and grasping objects (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an accurate statement regarding the relationship between the transport and grasp components of prehension?

<p>Recent evidence indicates that the transport and grasp phases influence each other. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the size of an object to be grasped affect movement kinematics during prehension?

<p>Object size influences the timing of maximum grip aperture and velocity profile of hand transport. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During the transport phase of prehension, what role does central vision play?

<p>Central vision is essential for detecting time-to-contact to initiate the grasp. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which principle related to prehension should be considered when designing rehabilitation programs?

<p>Rehabilitation should integrate reach, grasping, and manipulation due to their interdependence. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the concept of 'motor equivalence' in the context of handwriting?

<p>Adapting writing to various context demands, adjusting size and force. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Smyth and Silvers (1987), what are the two primary functions of vision in the control of handwriting?

<p>To control spatial arrangement of words on a line and produce accurate patterns. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is it generally more challenging to perform asymmetric bimanual coordination tasks compared to symmetric ones?

<p>The CNS has an inherent preference for symmetrically controlling limb movements. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens initially when someone is learning an asymmetric bimanual skill?

<p>A temporal and spatial coupling of the movements between the two arms. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a phase of catching a moving object that has been identified by motor control research?

<p>Estimation of object weight (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of information provides the foundation of the grasping action to catch a moving object?

<p>Visual information obtained before the ball makes contact with hand. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the research by Williams et al. (1998) on catching, how do successful ball catchers differ from non-catchers in their actions?

<p>They initiate final hand and finger shaping sooner. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two critical periods of visual contact necessary for successfully catching a moving object?

<p>Initial flight portion of the object and just prior to hand contact. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is vision of the hands more important for inexperienced individuals when catching a moving object?

<p>To improve positioning accuracy of the hand relative to the ball. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Central pattern generators (CPGs) are crucial for locomotion. Where are they located, and what function do they serve?

<p>Located in the spinal cord; they provide rhythmicity for gait patterns. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the rhythmic structure of gait patterns influence the coordination between arms and legs during walking?

<p>The rhythmic structure is important to understanding different speed variations. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is maintaining stable head stability during locomotion important, and how is this achieved?

<p>To maximize sensory input, patients will adapt and change to atypical gaits. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the role of vision in ensuring accurate locomotion, specifically regarding contacting objects?

<p>Vision is utilized to specify time-to-contact (tau) which allows one to change the appropriate step lengths. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is action preparation in the context of motor control?

<p>The process occurring between action intention and action initiation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Donders (1868), what is the significance of demonstrating a minimum amount of time to 'prepare' an intended action?

<p>Shows how much time the motor control system needs. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does reaction time (RT) primarily measure in the context of action preparation?

<p>The amount of time taken to mentally prepare an action. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Hick's Law describes how the number of response choices affects reaction time. What type of relationship does it specify?

<p>RT increases logarithmically with the number of stimulus-response choices. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does predictability of a correct response choice influence reaction time (RT)?

<p>RT decreases as the predictability of the correct response choice increases. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of action preparation, what is a 'precue', and how does it affect reaction time?

<p>It is an advance signal to indicate which choice to make, decreasing RT. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'stimulus-response compatibility' refer to, and how does it influence reaction time?

<p>Match between the physical characteristics, decreases RT. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What best describes the Stroop effect?

<p>Name is hard because colors distract. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the regularity of the foreperiod (time between warning and go signal) influence reaction time (RT)?

<p>More regular, decreases RT. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Henry and Rogers (1960) demonstrate regarding movement complexity and reaction time?

<p>Complex actions = Increases in RT. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does higher movement accuracy demands impact reaction time (RT) in motor skills?

<p>High is equal to high RT. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Psychological Refractory Period (PRP)?

<p>Delays in period for a 2nd response. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

With the relation to action preparation, what are the most important components?

<p>Performer and situation characteristics. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are anticipatory postural adjustments? (APA)

<p>Movements to intended skills. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Mercer & Sahrmann's data demonstrated what?

<p>Change is dependent on tasks. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is RT's relation to short sequences of movements?

<p>RT increases with movement complexity. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why are Pre-performance rituals that performers engage in before a motor skill?

<p>To prepare relative timing. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Attention in Skill Performance

Characteristics associated with consciousness, awareness and cognitive effort during skill performance.

Attention Limits

The limits on performing multiple tasks simultaneously due to attentional constraints.

Filter Theories (bottleneck theories)

Difficulty in doing multiple tasks due to the serial processing of stimuli.

Central-Resource Capacity Theories

Theories suggesting information processing functions can be carried out in parallel.

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Central (CNS) Attention Source

One central CNS source of attention resources for all activities.

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Attention as Cognitive Effort

Attention as 'cognitive effort' related to mental resources for activity.

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Flexible Attention Capacity

Amount of available attention varies with individual, task, and situation.

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General Pool of Effort

A general pool representing available attention for activities.

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Arousal Level

Defined as the general state of excitability of the person.

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Evaluation of Attention Requirements

The evaluation of attention requirements of multiple tasks.

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Dual-Task Procedure

Note interference caused by secondary task on primary task.

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Attentional Focus

Directing attention to specific aspects of performance or environment.

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Attention Switching

Ability to switch attentional focus width or direction.

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Internal Focus Constraint

Leads to a disruption of automatic motor control processes.

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Automaticity

Performance of a skill with little to no demands on attention capacity.

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Selective Attention

Focusing of attention to performance-related information in the environment.

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Visual Selective Attention

Role of vision in locating important environmental information.

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Visual Search

Directing visual attention to locate relevant information/cues in the environment.

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Visual Search

Active search for 'regulatory conditions' based on the action goal.

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Skilled Visual Search

Skilled players visually search for essential information necessary to act.

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Visual Search in Action Preparation

Visual search selects information that influences action preparation.

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Open Motor Skills

Involve a supporting surface, object, and/or other people in motion.

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Closed Motor Skills

Involve a stationary supporting surface, object, and/or other people.

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Quiet Eye

The final eye fixation just before movement initiation.

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Implicit Learning

Learning relevant visual information without conscious awareness.

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Memory

The capacity that permits organisms to benefit from past experiences.

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Working Memory (WM)

Memory system associated with sensory, perceptual, attentional, and short-term processes.

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Phonological Loop

Short term storage of verbal information (Words and numbers).

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Visuospatial Sketchpad

Visually detected spatial information is stored for short periods of time.

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Central Executive

Which coordinates the information in the working memory.

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Chunking

Organizing items into groups.

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Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Serves as the more permanent storage repository of information.

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Procedural Memory

Stores information about “how to do” specific activities.

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Semantic Memory

Stores our general knowledge about facts and concepts.

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Episodic Memory

Stores our knowledge about personally experienced events.

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Declarative Knowledge

Explicit memory; Knowledge that can be verbalized.

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Procedural Knowledge

Implicit memory; Knowledge that enables one to actually perform a skill.

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Encoding

Process of transforming to-be-remembered information into a form that can be stored in memory.

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Storage

Process of placing information in long-term memory.

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Rehearsal

Process that enables a person to transfer information from working to long-term memory.

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Retrieval

Process of searching through LTM for information needed for present use.

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Motor Control

Involves the study of the behavioral and neuromuscular mechanisms that produce coordinated movements.

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Degrees of Freedom

The number of independent elements in a system and the ways each element can act.

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Coordination

Patterning of body and limb motions relative to environmental objects and events.

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Closed Loop System

A system where control is dependent on the use of feedback.

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Open Loop System

A system where control is independent of feedback.

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Motor Program-Based Theory

A memory-based mechanism that controls coordinated movement.

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Generalized Motor Program (GMP)

A memory-based mechanism which controls a specific class of actions.

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Invariant Features

Similar characteristics that do not vary across performances of a skill.

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Parameters

Specific movement features added to invariant that adapt to the situation.

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Dynamical Systems Theory

A theory where movement patterns emerge from interaction of variables.

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Attractor

A stable state of the motor control system representing coordination patterns.

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Order Parameters

Variables that define the overall behavior of a system.

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Control Parameter

A variable, when increased or decreased, influences the stability of the order parameter.

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Proprioception

Sensory perception of limb, body, and head movement characteristics.

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Muscle Spindles

Mechanoreceptors detecting changes in muscle fiber length and velocity.

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Golgi-Tendon Organs (GTO)

Detect changes in muscle tension/force.

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Perception-Action Coupling

The perception and utilization of critical information for the control of action

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Affordances

Possibilities for action defined by individual characteristics vs. environment.

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Time-to-Contact

Monitors the amount of time remaining until contact with an object.

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Attractor State

A stable state representing preferred coordination.

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Motor Control Defined

Study of behavioral and neuromuscular mechanisms producing coordinated movement.

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Motor Control Definition

The process by which the central nervous system determines the appropriate measures to achieve the goal of a motor skill

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What is a Theory?

Accurately describes behaviors and predicts future observations.

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Motor Control Theory

Addresses motor control from a behavioral level, explaining coordinated movement.

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Degrees of Freedom Definition

Describes independent elements in a system and their possible actions.

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Control Systems Basis

Open and closed loop systems initiate and control action via a central control center.

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Open v Closed systems

Factors include: Precision, learning, skill type, time.

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Motor Program Theory

Memory-based mechanism that controls coordinated movement.

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Invariant Features Definition

The identifying signature of a GMP that don't vary across performances.

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Parameters Definition

Specific features added to invariant features that adapt to given situations.

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Dynamical Pattern Theory

Movement patterns emerge from interaction of numerous variables in the body, the environment and the task

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Attractor Characteristics

Constant movement pattern identified by order parameters (ex. relative phase)

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Attractor Defined

A stable state of the motor control system that represents preferred patterns of coordination (ex. walking).

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Coordinative Structures

Central control center (CNS) activates specific set of muscles to perform a task

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Perception-Action Coupling Def

Linking of information and movements.

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Sensory Information

Sensory information that is essential in all theories of motor control and learning

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Touch (Relevance)

Touch is essential to perform skills that require manipulation of an object such as writing

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Skin receptors

Neural basis of touch - mechanoreceptors located in the dermis layer of skin

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Mechanoreceptors

Mechanoreceptors located in the dermis layer of skin

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Three primary types of proprioceptors

Muscle Spindles, Golgi tendon organs and joint receptors

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Muscle Spindles detect

Mechanoreceptors detecting changes in muscle fiber length (stretch) and velocity (speed of stretch)

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Golgi Tendon Organs locate

In skeletal muscle near insertion of tendon

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Surgical deafferentation

Technique to Surgically remove or alter afferent neutral pathways

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Tendon Vibration

Involves high speed vibration of the tendon of the agonist muscle

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Monocular versus Binocular Vision

Demonstrated that binocular vision is important for depth-perception

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Central Vision

Represents middle 2-5°of visual field (foveal vision). Provides specific information to allow us to achieve action goals

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Peripheral Vision

Detects info beyond the central vision limits (Upper limit ~ 200°). Peripheral vision perceives optical flow of the environment

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Tau (τ)

Quantifiable optical variable

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Common Movement Control Errors

Errors that commonly arise when attempting tasks faster than usual.

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Speed-Accuracy Tradeoff

The tradeoff where emphasizing accuracy reduces movement speed, and vice-versa.

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Fitts' Law

Movement time can be mathematically predicted based on speed and accuracy demands.

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Variables in Fitts' Law

Movement distance and target size

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Fitts' Law Equation

Equation to describe logarithmic relationship between speed and accuracy.

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Index of Difficulty (ID)

Quantitative measure of difficulty in performing a skill.

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Open-loop Control in Aiming

The initial 'open-loop' phase dictates limb speed/direction.

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Closed-loop Control in Aiming

The later 'closed-loop' phase corrects movements using feedback.

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Preparation Phase Vision

Using vision to assess regulatory conditions and select motor program.

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Initial Flight Phase Vision

Using peripheral vision to monitor limb displacement and velocity

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Termination Phase Vision

Vision used to provide spatial-temporal information about the target.

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Prehension

General term describing actions involving reach and grasp of objects.

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Transport (Prehension)

Movement of the hand to the object.

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Grasp (Prehension)

The hand taking hold of the object.

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Object Manipulation

The hand carrying out the intended use for the object.

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Intended Use Influence

The use of the object affect movement characteristics of the hand.

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Temporal Coupling

Interdependence between transport and grasp phases of prehension.

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Prehension: Preparation Role

Vision assesses environment, initiates movement in prehension.

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Prehension: Transport Role

Vision detects time-to-contact for initiating grasp during prehension.

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Prehension: Grasp Role

Vision monitors and supplement tactile feedback. vision is responsible for the end of the movement

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Handwriting Control

Cognitive and motor-control processes involved in handwriting.

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Motor Equivalence

Adapting writing to various context demands.

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Two Functions of Vision in Control of Handwriting

Controlling spatial arrangement and produce handwriting patterns

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Bimanual Coordination

Skills requiring moving of two arms with same of different characteristics

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Symmetric Coordination

Bimanual action in which the arms move together in the same way

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Asymmetric Coordination

Bimanual Coordination in which each hand move independently

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CNS Preference

Preference for controlling limb movements symmetrically.

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Catching Phases

3 phases: Initial positioning, shaping hand, grasping.

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Vision in Catching

Vision provides info to set hands before arrival. Visual info more than tactile

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Amount of Contact time in Catching

Knowing if the participant has enough visual contact time

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Critical Time Period for Catching

The beginning of the objects flight (for estimates). And just before hand contact (timing of movement)

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Catching Without Vision

Error in ball catching due to positining where the hands is not in correct spalial position

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Catching with Vision

Attached screen to block participants' view of hands when catching an object

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Vision and Proprioception

Performance enhancement with the ability of visual contact, proprioception enhances performance

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Striking Similarity

Involves interception of an object.

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Central Pattern Generators(CPG)

The component movements are involved in the use of CPG for running/locomotion

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Rhythmic Structure Role

Measure influences of gait related factors like two arms in walking can dictate speed

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Clinical gait analysis

Analyzing coordination problems is beneficial for those impacted by Parkinson's.

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Action Preparation

The motor control system prepares to do the thing (ie, a skill)

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During Action Preparation

Occurs between action and initiation with development and implimentation

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Action Time

Amount of time to allow the motor control system to prepare

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Study Notes

Speed and Accuracy Principles

  • Most movement control errors happen when trying to perform a task faster than is typical.
  • Motor skills require movements with levels of both speed and accuracy.
  • Motor skill performance demonstrates a phenomena called the Speed-Accuracy Tradeoff.
  • The accuracy requirements of movement will influence movement speed.
  • Emphasis on accuracy will reduce movement speed.

Fitts' Law

  • Paul Fitts (1954) showed that movement time (MT) could be mathematically predicted for speed-accuracy skills.
  • Fitts' Law uses movement distance and target size to predict performance.
  • In experiment, subjects moved as fast as possible by alternatively tapping two metal targets.
  • Fitts' Law Equation is MT = a + b log2 (2D/W).
  • The equation shows the logarithmic relationship between speed and accuracy.
  • Movement time decreases to allow for an accurate movement.
  • Movement speed decreases as target size decreases or target distance increases
  • The index of difficulty is a quantitative measure of the difficulty of performing a skill.
  • The measure is calculated based on the Fitts' law equation log2 (2D/W).
  • Tasks with a higher index will require longer movement

Applying Fitts' Law

  • Fitts' law has been used in various non-laboratory motor skills,
  • Dart throwing and moving a cursor on a computer screen are examples of its application.
  • Peg-board manipulation tasks are used in physical rehabilitation.
  • It can be used when reaching and grasping containers of different sizes.
  • Fitts' law principles have been applied to the development of control panels, computer software, and technology.
  • More frequent tasks should be positioned closer to the average position.
  • Tasks done more frequently should have larger buttons assigned.

Manual Aiming skills

  • Motor control processes related to the speed-accuracy tradeoff can be explained.
  • During movement initiation, open-loop control dictates the initial movement speed and direction to bring the limb into the vicinity of the target.
  • Feedback from vision and proprioception is needed to accurately hit the target during movement termination using closed-loop control
  • Amount of time available is the primary factor if movement correction is possible.
  • If movement is too fast, there will be insufficient time for visual feedback to generate a movement correction.

Vision and Manual-Aiming Skills

  • Vision plays a predominant role in the perception-action coupling of a manual-aiming skill.
  • The role of vision is specific to the preparation, initial flight, and termination phases.
  • During the preparation phase, vision assesses regulatory conditions of the environmental context.
  • Vision specifies the required direction and distance of the limb movement in preparation.
  • Integration of all sensory information leads to selecting an appropriate motor program.
  • During the initial flight phase, the CNS operates in an open-loop system without influence of sensory feedback for fast movements
  • During the initial flight phase, peripheral vision monitors limb displacement and velocity and central gaze shifts to the keyhole at 50% to determine time-to-contact (tau).
  • During the termination phase which begins at contact with target, vision of the limb and target is necessary to provide spatial-temporal information.

Prehension

  • Prehension is the general term used to describe actions involving reaching for and grasping objects.
  • Research divides prehension skills into transport, grasp and object manipulation components.
  • Transport is the movement of the hand to the object.
  • Grasp is the hand taking hold of the object.
  • Object manipulation is hand carrying out intended use of the object.
  • The intended use of the object influences movement characteristics of the hand,
  • This is why prehension should be considered a separate action from manual-aiming skills.
  • Movement kinematics for prehension phases indicate strong temporal coupling.
  • The size of object to grasp influences the timing of the maximum grip aperture and the velocity profile of hand transport movement
  • Grip closure generally begins at 2/3 movement time.
  • Both transport and grasp components are modified when object is unexpectedly moved during transport or when an obstacle needs to be avoided.

Vision and Prehension

  • The role of vision in prehension tasks is similar to manual aiming tasks.
  • During preparation and movement initiation, vision assesses regulatory conditions and environment context and estimates spatial movement characteristics to achieve the action goal forwarding information integrated and forwarded to CNS.
  • Central vision is essential during the transport of the hand to the object, to detect time-to-contact and initiate grasp.
  • Peripheral vision provides hand movement feedback.
  • Vision monitors the grasp to supplement tactile and proprioceptive feedback.
  • Prehension skills also demonstrate speed-accuracy characteristics predicted by Fitts' law
  • The index of difficulty measures can be calculated for grasping containers of different sizes and quantities of liquid (Latash & Jaric, 2002).
  • Due to the interdependent relationship of prehension components rehabilitation should not separate reach, grasping and manipulation and practice should include a variety of object and manipulation characteristics

Handwriting

  • Different control mechanisms are involved in handwriting through cognitive and motor control processes.
  • Handwriting demonstrates 'motor equivalence' with the ability to adapt to various context demands while automatically adjust size, force direction, and muscle involvement.
  • Motor control of handwriting demonstrates a coordinative with various components (limb) demonstrating similar writing patterns.
  • At least spatial features of writing are represented in memory as an abstract motor program.
  • Smyth and Silvers (1987) demonstrated 2 distinct functions of vision: to control the overall spatial arrangement of words on a horizontal line and to produce accurate handwriting patterns.

Bimanual Coordination

  • Skill performance may call for the 2 arms to move with the same or different spatial and/or temporal characteristics.
  • Symmetric bimanual coordination is when arms move in the same way, like rowing a boat or pushing wheelchair.
  • Asymmetric bimanual coordination is when arms move independently, like playing the guitar, drumming, or serving in tennis.
  • The CNS prefers symmetric limb movements.
  • When learning an asymmetric bimanual skill, participants show a temporal and spatial coupling of the movements between the two arms.
  • Limb speed slows down for the less difficult arm performing talk and initial arm movements resemble a more complex task.
  • With practice, a person learns to uncouple or disassociate the movement of the two limbs as needed to perform the skill.
  • This involves increased roles for proprioception, vision feedback and involvement of supplementary motor areas.

Catching a Moving Object

  • Catching a moving object aligns with prehension tasks.
  • Difference lies in catching involving intercepting a moving object
  • The involves 3 phases of catching.
  • Which are initial positioning of arm and hand, shaping of hand and fingers and grasping the object itself.
  • Advance motor control information helps with visions helps to assist arms, hand and fingers before the ball arrives.
  • Action can be obtained by obtaining what makes contact and visual information rather than the tactitle feedback.
  • Initiating a final hand can be gained at 80 MSC by being successful catchers.

Catching visual contact

  • Involve two types of time periods: initial or just prior to hand contact to visually catch a object.
  • Which involves visual contact with the object to estimate initial direction with flight.
  • and information pertaining to a contact for (200 to 300 ms)

Visual Catch

  • And can be obtained or seen during brief segments while having those snapshots.
  • Also can be seen through hands with accuracy through proprioception feedback.
  • But for an inexpensive requires that visual component .
  • But being experience in the visual component and not need it

Striking A Moving Object

  • Very similar to object because for the fact they involve interception.
  • Has a ball that affects professional ball players who have a similar time.
  • Adaptation can involve the starting time.
  • Professional players have visual contact to the ball.
  • This inferring an increase and time limit by pitches.l.

Locomotion

  • Central pattern generators (CPG) in the spinal cord are involved in the control of locomotion (gait.
  • It also supports with stereotyped steps for walking and running gait.
  • Mechanically use or movements that for with gait such as mechanically stepping when walking.
  • Which allows a for measuring of different factors
  • Relationship with gait and pattern can relate to the arms and legs.

Walking Speed

  • The use and walking can relate to speed.
  • Which consist of 2 arms doing coordinated patterns and stride.
  • At higher speeds, they move out of phase.
  • Helps for assessment for coordination and if any problem exist.
  • For stability with optimizing vision while also for optimize head stability with all different types of gaits when doing walking.
  • Transitions also take effect when changing from running to speed depending on energy to do so.
  • Vision helps for long jumps to see step patterns to also go to identical spot.
  • Step lines are able to be variant with trial to trial.
  • Vision has been shown to create all sorts of action when making different actions.

Action Preparation

  • Voluntary, coordinated movement requires preparation of the motor control system.
  • Action preparation happens between action intention and initiation.
  • This takes an appropriate movement that require a minimum action and preparation of time period.
  • Many time depend with preparation and what action.
  • Time also depends on reaction.
  • Time is the most commonly indexed action and time.

Task and Situation Characteristics

  • Factors that also depend on preparation depends on a given situation.
  • Consisting of a bunch of different actions like movement and complexity.

Number of response choices

  • And will require a number of response choices for RT.
  • And as such is known as Hick law.

Predictably of Correct Response Choice

  • Predictably of the correct response choice happens if the response choice and decreases.
  • And will be beneficial to lose participants at the given time.

Stimulus-response compatibility

  • Has relationships between the increased and spatial stimulus.

Foreperiod length regularity

  • This period in regular and warning signal is more consistent.
  • Shorter are attributed to participating to a given time.

Movement complexity

  • It increased in complexity as a result or with movement complexity.
  • This takes effect a time increment on the act that the person needs to complete/start.

Movement accuracy

  • Needs to be higher movement which depends on it.

Psychology refractory period delay time that the stimulant to execute the previously a initial . and is also referred to as a psychological refracting moment.

Alertness of performer.

  • Needs an signal that alerts a for period to get alerted at a give .

Events During Preparation

  • Fractionating RT (Electromyography) EMG divides action preparation into premotor and motor time
  • Changes to premotor time can occur and are influences can result in changes to.

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