Atomic Nucleus: Properties and Rutherford Experiment

General Properties of the Atomic Nucleus

• The atomic nucleus is discussed in detail.
• The Rutherford experiment demonstrates scattering of alpha particles.
• The nucleus is defined as a system of interacting protons and neutrons.
• The nucleus has an electric charge and a mass number.
• Atomic isotopes and isobars are defined.
• The mass of the nucleus is detailed.
• Nuclear binding energy is calculated.
• Nuclear spin and magnetic moment are measured, involving bosons and fermions.
• Pauli's exclusion principle is mentioned.

Rutherford Experiment

• In the early 20th century, atoms considered real and consist of neutral components, and negative/positive electric charges.
• Scientists questioned the structure of an atom.
• Thomson discovered electrons within an atom in 1897.
• An atom consists of a positively charged part connected to the main mass and light negative electrons.
• Thomson proposed the first model of the atom: positive charge is uniform throughout the sphere and negative charges are point-like.
• In its ground state, an electron must be at the sphere's center where the electric field is zero.
• When an electron shifts 'x' distance from the center, a restoring force acting toward the quasi-elastic center appears.
• Electrons that deviate from equilibrium oscillate.

Thomson Model

• Thomson's model matched Lorentz's electron theory, where atoms are harmonic oscillators i.e. the atom-oscillator model.
• Negatively charged electrons in the atom-oscillator emit harmonic oscillations from electromagnetic waves.
• Electrons inside the atom experience a quasi-elastic force, causing harmonic oscillations.
• The model was later found to be invalid because it predicted atoms could emit their primary frequency with its harmonics.
• This contradicted Balmer's experiments.

Rutherford's Planetary Model

• Illustrated via a diagram.
• In Rutherford's atomic model, electrons orbit the nucleus.
• The planetary model incompatible with classical physics.
• Electrons in orbit must emit electromagnetic waves because of centripetal acceleration.
• Energy loss from radiation requires a smaller orbit radius.
• The electron should eventually collapse into the nucleus; the atom was not comprehensible in a planetary model of classical physics.
• Atomic emission frequency should match electron revolution frequency, which is incongruent with atomic spectrum laws.
• Rutherford's experiments confirm the planetary model, but several experimental data and laws may not be explainable from within.

Interacting Protons and Neutrons

• D.D. Ivanenko and W. Heisenberg hypothesized that every element's nuclei consist of protons and neutrons.
• Nucleus mass is linked to proton/neutron mass, but neutron charge neutrality links nucleus charge to protons.
• Stable nuclei have: charge, radius, mass, mechanical/magnetic moments, activated spectrum, and multipole moments.
• Radioactive nuclei have: production time, emitted radiation/energy.
• The different states of an atom's nucleus have diverse energies.
• Mass is: mp=1838.1me.
• m₁=1836.6me.
• Atomic unit is: mp=1,00759 a.u.m.
• m₁=1,00898 a.u.m.
• m₁=938.3 MeV.
• m₁=939.6 MeV.
• Mass unit ratio is: 1 a.u.m.=(1,6605655±0,000086)*10⁻²⁷kg=(931,5016±0,0026) MeV/c².
• Elementary particle charges include 0 or ±e.
• qp=±e, q=0.
• Proton/Neutron spin amount is S=1/2h.
• Particle parameters include: mass charge, and spin, but classical analogy must be avoided as particle rotation cannot be fixed.
• Half-spin particles are fermions and full-spin particles are bosons.
• The magneton is: 0=(+2,792763±0,0003)μο.
• μο=(-1,913148±0,000066)μο.
• Experiments use magnetic moment.
• Protons and neutrons can transform into each other in the nucleus, so that power interactions occur.
• The relationship between this potential energy and range depicted graphically.
• Nuclear force range-of radius: ro=10⁻¹³cm U=30MeV.

Electric Charge of Nucleus

• For element „XA, A=number of nucleons and Z=number of protons.
• Isotopes are number of neutrons: ¹H¹, ₁H²,₁H³.
• Modern data confirms 280 stable and 1450 radioactive isotopes..
• Isobars are the same number (A) nucleons: H³, 2H³.
• There are sixty stable isobar pairs.
• G. Mosley recognized nuclear charge back in’13.
• J. Chadwick measured spread via alpha particles thru thin metal, recognizing nuclear charge back in’20.
• Rutherford measured atomic nucleus-that diameter equals d=10⁻¹²cm.
• Modern measurements identify radioactive alpha particles, nucleus scattering, and nucleus binding energy.
• Neutron/electron scattering yields reliable results. • Electron wavelength is the measure of the nucleus.
• Diffraction emerges from electron/nucleus scattering.
• It is possible to calculate dispersion for R (radius).
• Various core radius were found via this method, as nucleon connection is the result of nuclear sphere form.
• R=roA¹/³, ro=(1.2—1.3)10⁻¹³cm. Formula determines nuclear volume; V=4/3πr₀³ A., N=A/V=3A/4πr₀³A=10³⁸nucleon/cm³.

Properties of Atomic Nuclei

• The density of a nucleus is approximately p=10¹⁴g/cm³.
• A sphere of radius 200m would have the mass density of Earth.
• Proton charge is + charged at Tp = 1.6726 x 10⁻²⁷.
• 1836 te mass is possessed by proton, mass of electron being Te & neutron (n)-mass=Tp =6749 x 10^-27 ≈1836 te is a neutral piece.
• Protons/neutrons are nucleons (Latin nucleus-core). Mass number A represents nucleons count in atomic nucleus.
• Atomic nucleus given electrical strength denoted by Z
• Z is the number of protons, i.e., charge count.
• D.I. Mendeleev used this atomic charge to organize his periodic table, Z counts the number of protons.
• There are 110 Mendeleev table components, charges ranging from Z=1 to Z=110.
• Neutral atom given symbol for an element X symbolized by chemical X as a load, Z counts protons, the charge of which, and A is mass number
• Currently, the proton-neutron atom is indisputable, so people question hypothesis with an electron structure.

Isotopes vs Isobars

• Hypothesized that a load would show that a mass number in the core shows the count in the core count of protons and that a mass amount between electric members was worth counting in the past.
• O-model mass that works with values & loads but mass and loads fail relative to energy values for revolutions.
• Aside from that it won’t fall into line with uncertainty issues.
• Consequently, a hypothesis about structures in an atom of load is void
• However, since loads can clarify the electron count then the chemical properties of the load rest with this idea because this is when an electrical load can be given and the inner is that the load can fall.
• Z is each identical part for the a-variant A-is a various nucleon as load/Z or isotopes is meant in that case.
• A charge then does not affect an elemental individual because most of these
• Elementals have an identical chemical property in the loads structure then
• Because a cell is identical for everything including cell load cell.

Nucleon Bonding Energy

• If we assume the first method then an explicit empir formula for the radiuses resulted
• With Ro=(1.3 — 1.7)10^—15m.
• Radius has a loose sense of importance given obscure core borders, this empir
• It is a relationship to an elemental atomic strength.

Nuclear Binding Energy/Nucleon Bonding Energy Connection

• Full core strength has a connection strength with einstein force.
• To conduct practice we find the core bulk is not always the count for mass
• The strength amount, therefore, relies with elements which has einstein structure because;E = mc2