Atlantic Opening: Consequences of the New World

The period in European history when European countries transitioned from focusing on the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean as their primary trade route.

The discovery of the Americas by European explorers, starting with Christopher Columbus's voyage in 1492.

The desire to spread Christianity to new lands, a driving force behind European exploration.

The need to find alternative trade routes to Asia after the Ottoman Empire's conquest of Constantinople closed off traditional routes.

Technological advancements that made long sea voyages possible, such as the invention of the caravel and improved navigation tools.

The treaty signed in 1494 between Spain and Portugal, dividing newly discovered lands in the New World between them.

The fall of the Byzantine Empire to the Ottoman Turks, leading to a significant shift in European power and trade.

The period in Iberian history marked by the reconquest of Spain and Portugal from Muslim rule.

A type of sailing ship designed by the Portuguese, known for its maneuverability and speed, which played a crucial role in exploration.

Navigation tools that allowed explorers to determine their position at sea, such as the compass and astrolabe.

The route taken by gold and silver from their mining locations to European markets.

The main mining locations for gold and silver in the Americas, where indigenous people and African slaves often worked.

The process of transporting gold and silver from the mines to Spanish ports using ships.

Spanish convoys used to transport gold and silver across the Atlantic Ocean to protect against pirate attacks.

The primary port in Spain where gold and silver arrived, where the Spanish crown levied taxes.

The Spanish Crown's official trade institution in Seville, responsible for collecting taxes on imported goods.

The significant increase in gold and silver imports to Spain during the 16th century, driven by new discoveries.

The economic impact of the influx of gold and silver into Spain, leading to price increases.

The period of increased global trade and interconnectedness between the 16th to 18th centuries, fueled by the discovery of new continents and resources.

Forcing people to work without fair pay and under harsh conditions, often used to support the expansion of global trade.

Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian explorer, made key observations regarding the newly discovered lands in the Americas. He recognized they were part of a continent previously unknown to Europeans, and not just islands as originally thought by Christopher Columbus.

In the early 16th century, the Portuguese established coastal settlements in the lands granted to them by the Treaty of Tordesillas. They primarily focused on extracting brazilwood, a valuable dye-producing wood. They also set up trading posts along the African coast to facilitate the slave trade.

Spanish conquistadors were ruthless explorers and soldiers who led expeditions into the Americas. Driven by a lust for gold and wealth, they employed violence, plunder, and theft to achieve their goals. They exploited political divisions among indigenous populations, leveraged their superior technology (horses and firearms), and brought devastating diseases that decimated native populations.

Hernán Cortes, a Spanish conquistador, led a small force of about 550 soldiers to conquer the Aztec Empire in what is now Mexico between 1519 and 1521. He exploited Aztec religious beliefs, political divisions, and superior weaponry to defeat them. The Aztecs practiced human sacrifice, which Cortes used as justification for his conquest. The conquered Aztec lands eventually became known as New Spain.

Francisco Pizarro, a Spanish conquistador, conquered the Inca Empire in 1531-1536, using just about 180 men. The Inca Empire extended across present-day Peru. He exploited internal conflicts within the Inca Empire and the devastating effects of European diseases on the native population. The Inca Empire was renamed the Viceroyalty of Peru after its conquest.

The brutal conquest of the Americas led to a dramatic decline in the indigenous population. The native population of the Americas plummeted due to forced labor in mines and plantations, violence by the Spanish conquistadors, and exposure to European diseases like measles and smallpox. The population of Peru, for example, decreased by 20 times in a century after the Conquest.

European missionaries traveled to the Americas with the purpose of converting the native population to Christianity. They baptized the natives en masse, demolished their temples, built churches in their place, and transformed the cities to reflect European standards. Their efforts aimed to erase native cultures and impose Christian beliefs.

The demand for sugar in Europe resulted in a boom in sugar production in the Americas. To meet this massive demand, large plantations called 'sesmarias' were established in Brazil, often near ports for easier export. These plantations relied heavily on labor, initially utilizing indigenous populations, and later relying on enslaved individuals brought from Africa during the transatlantic slave trade.

The mixing of European, Indigenous, and African populations changed the demographic makeup of the Americas. This process created a hierarchical system based on racial classifications, with Europeans typically holding the highest positions and mixed-race individuals, such as the 'mestizos' (children of European and indigenous parents), being considered less equal. This social hierarchy reflected the power dynamics of the colonial system.