Art History: Greek and Roman Sculpture

Materials of Decoration

Lysippus

• Famous for modifying the canon of human proportions by using smaller heads for his figures
• Conceived his statues in the round, depicting people as they seem to be
• Acknowledged the statue of Doryporos as an inspiration

Roman Sculpture

• Continued in the tradition of Etruscan realism
• Revived the ideal forms of Greek Art, particularly in royal portrait busts
• Naturalism in sculpture was revived after the age of Augustus, with accurate portrayals of facial expressions
• Realistic effects were further carried out in relief sculpture with figures carved in varying depths
• Golden Age of Roman Sculpture occurred during the reign of Hadrian, with a revival of Grecian tastes and a focus on nude sculpture in the round
• Sarcophagi were often carved with elaborate reliefs, featuring motifs such as garlands, swags, mythological stories, and battles

Roman Sculpture Techniques

• Negative relief: a technique of undercutting with a drill around the figure to produce a strong but flattering contrast of light and darkness
• Lost wax process: a method of casting bronze, involving a series of steps including making a rough mold, creating a wax model, and carving the final figure

Types of Roman Sculpture

• Relief
• Funeral Reliefs
• Free-standing Sculpture
• Portrait Sculpture

Early Christian Sculpture

• Not a dominant feature in early Christian churches, but continued in the decoration of sarcophagi and developed in miniature form on ivory and wooden reliefs
• Works no longer corresponded to classical ideals of beauty, and the role of sculpture diminished due to the biblical prohibition of graven images
• Tritons, Nereids, and other symbols of eternity were used as decoration
• Carvings showed complex arrangements of biblical scenes

Byzantine Sculpture

• Sculpture in the round played a minimal part in Byzantine sculpture
• Marble capitals were carved with delicate vine scrolls and inscrutable animals
• Ivory panels were carved in relief, often used as covers for diptychs
• Diptychs consisted of two ivory panels or plaques tied together, with records of the departing consuls' office listed on the inner surface

Byzantine Period

• Characterized by Iconography, the representation of Christ, the Virgin, angels, prophets, evangelists, and apostles
• Icons were created in the form of mosaics, mural paintings, book illustrations, ivories, enamels, and icons
• The Iconoclastic Age began during the reign of Emperor Leo III, with a focus on simple crosses and symbolism

Romanesque Sculpture

• Engraved patterned stones were found in astonishing numbers on monastic sites
• Techniques advanced from engraving to relief sculptures
• Designs were usually in geometric and interlace patterns
• Romanesque sculpture is more commonly carved in reliefs and stone sculptures, often an integral part of architecture

Gothic Sculpture

• Early Gothic artists made façade sculptures more independent of the wall, while subordinating them to the discipline and linear clarity of the architectural design
• Sculptures show purified cylindrical shapes, elongation, strict frontality, and tectonic immobility
• The High Gothic Period saw sculpture assuming a deeper meaning, with subjects such as religious figures used as themes
• Proportions were ideally perfect, but no longer elongated and more natural

Mannerist Sculpture

• Supplanted the Renaissance Style, making a virtue of complexity, distortion, and artifice
• Focus on the human form, depicted in intricate poses and in exaggerated, not always realistic settings

Baroque Sculpture

• Despite its essential architectural function, was replete with lively movement and pictorial in nature
• Figures moved, flew, or were contorted with agony
• Abundant draperies fell in folds or were swept by the wind
• Figures in historic poses were made more dramatic by vivid light and dark contrasts produced by pronounced undercutting or deep indentations

Rococo Sculpture

• Maintained the theatricality of Baroque, with sculptured figures that were even more melodramatic and compositions that were more complex
• Elaborate tomb sculpture of the period looked more like stage sets
• There was a parallel movement away from the grandeur and monumental style of Baroque
• The Rococo taste for the small-scale soon expressed itself in the booming porcelain factories

Neo-Classicism

• Inspired by the study of antique sculpture and the idealized human form
• Artists believed that the purpose of sculpture was the imitation of the beautiful forms of nature, idealized by the genius of the artist

Modern Sculpture

• Characterized by a wide variety of styles and techniques
• Artists such as Constantin Brancusi, Henry Moore, and Germaine Richter created revolutionary and innovative works

Indian Sculpture

• Began in reference to all things Buddhist
• Gods, animals, and other figures were carved into the façade of temples, monasteries, and stupas
• Indian sculpture is stylized to represent certain religious ideas and doctrines

Oriental Sculpture

Chinese Sculpture

• Highly stylized human and animal figures, usually in bronze, terra cotta, or glazed stoneware
• The first period of interest is the Western Zhou Dynasty, from which come a variety of intricate cast bronze vessels
• The Terracotta Army is a notable example of Chinese sculpture

Japanese Sculpture

• Countless sculptures were made, often under governmental sponsorship
• Most are associated with religion, and the medium used declined with the lessening importance of traditional Buddhism
• Mediums used were usually wood, bronze, or clay

Islam/Moorish Sculpture

• Introduced a technique of deep relief done in plaster or stucco known as yesseria
• Sculpture was almost completely absent from Islam art
• It is based largely on linear patterns and geometric designs
• The most important decorative motif was arabesque serpentine writhing of lines that represent the Arabic tree of life

Philippine Sculpture

• The conversion of Filipinos to Christianity had a profound effect on sculpture

• The making of Anitos was disregarded, and Santos were carved instead

• These were used for the adornment of churches and later on were adapted to the Filipino home

• Secular sculpture flourished in the 19th century with busts, genre, and other non-religious subjects### Sculpture Terminology

• Mural sculpture: a type of sculpture attached to a wall or surface

• Naturalism: a style that depicts objects and figures as they appear in nature

• Ornament: decorative elements added to a sculpture

• Pedestal: the support or base on which a sculpture is mounted or displayed

• Plaster: a material made from gypsum used for casting sculptures

• Post-modern sculpture: sculpture created in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, characterized by a rejection of traditional styles and techniques

• Realism: a style that depicts objects and figures as they appear in reality

• Relief sculpture: a type of sculpture in which figures or objects are raised from the background surface

• Renaissance sculpture: sculpture created during the Renaissance period, characterized by a revival of classical styles and techniques

• Romanticism: a style that emphasizes emotion and imagination over reason and logic

• Sand casting: a casting process in which the mold is made of sand and then the molten metal is poured into the mold

• Sculptor: an artist who creates sculptures

• Stone sculpture: a type of sculpture made from stone, such as marble or granite

• Style: the distinctive characteristics of a sculpture or group of sculptures

• Symbolism: the use of symbols or images to convey a deeper meaning or message in a sculpture

• Terracotta: a type of sculpture made from fired clay, typically unglazed

• Texture: the surface quality of a sculpture, which can be smooth, rough, polished, or otherwise varied

• Three-dimensional: having three dimensions, height, width, and depth

• Tools: the implements used by sculptors to create their work, such as chisels, hammers, and files

• Volume: the amount of space occupied by a sculpture

• Wood sculpture: a type of sculpture made from wood, such as carving or whittling

Materials of Decoration

• Plasticene: a material that does not shrink, crack, or dry out and can be worked on over a long time
• Plaster cast: a copy of a sculpture, which is cast in plaster over a period of time, can accurately reproduce the details of the original sculpture, but is usually much less durable

Ceramics and Pottery

• Ceramics: non-metallic solids made up of either metal or non-metal compounds that have been shaped and hardened by heating to high temperatures
• Pottery: the process of forming vessels and other artifacts with clay and other ceramic materials
• Characteristics of ceramics: hard, corrosion-resistant, and brittle
• Origin of the term Ceramics: comes from the Greek word Keramicos, meaning "pottery", which in turn comes from the Greek Keramos, meaning specifically "potter's clay"

Pottery Production Stages

The Clay State or Greenware

• The ware is formed but hasn't gone under firing
• Characteristics: brittle and fragile, but can be handled with care
• Can be sanded with fine grade sandpaper to ensure a smooth finish in the completed item
• Leather hard: a specific stage during the drying of the object, still visibly damp but has dried enough to be able to be handled without deformation
• Bone dry: a term used to identify Greenware pottery that has dried as much as possible before it has gone through its first firing
• Characteristics of bone dry: extremely brittle and will break apart very easily, should be handled as little as possible and great care must be taken when loading it into the kiln

The Biscuit State or Bisque

• A term literally meaning "half-baked"
• Any pottery that has been fired without a ceramic glaze
• Can be a final product such as bisque porcelain, or unglazed earthenware, often called terracotta, or, most commonly, an intermediary stage in a glazed final