Archaeology and Earth's History

Archaeology: A Vast Jigsaw Puzzle

• Archaeology is like a vast, unfinished jigsaw puzzle.
• The number of missing pieces is unknown.
• Many pieces are irretrievably lost.
• There's no cheat sheet to reveal the picture.

Early Ideas about Earth's Age

• Archbishop Ussher calculated Earth's age based on biblical sources.
• He estimated creation occurred on October 22, 4004 BC.
• During the 1600s, ancient artifacts were explained as natural phenomena (e.g., thunderstones).

Creationism and Catastrophism

• Creationism posited a perfect, unchanging world.
• Catastrophism proposed dramatic natural events altered the world.
• These events were explained using the principle of uniformitarianism.

The Principle of Uniformitarianism

• The geological processes observed now operated in the past.

Stratigraphy

• Subsurface layers reveal ordered fossil groups.

Archaeology of the 18th and 19th Centuries

• Cabinets of curiosities (or "cheerio cabinets") emerged, showcasing unusual items.
• Cyrus Thomas researched Native American mound builders, concluding they were built by Native Americans, which was published in 1894.

Scientific Archaeology

• The 1990s saw an emphasis on comprehensive artifact recovery.
• Detailed documentation of every archaeological feature is essential.
• Military level precision is valued.
• Stratigraphy is crucial to determining geological age of layers and locations. An anthropological understanding is emphasized.

Classes of Archaeological Effects

• Artifacts: Portable objects fashioned by humans.
• Examples: Ceramics, lithics, and metallurgy
• Ecofacts: Portable objects with cultural significance but not created by humans.
• Examples: Paleoethnobotany (plant remains), zooarchaeology (animal remains), geoarchaeology (earth materials)
• Features: Non-portable human-made remains that cannot be removed without damage.

Archaeological Dating Methods

• Relative Dating: Determining the age of one item relative to another (e.g., Artifact X is older than Artifact Y).
• Radiometric Dating: Carbon-14 dating to determine the age of organic remains, by observing unstable atom transformations.

Timeline

• BC/AD: Before Christ/Anno Domini
• BCE/CE: Before the Common Era/Common Era (often alternatives to BC/AD)
• BP: Before Present (often used with radiocarbon dating, typically before AD 1950)

Paleolithic (Stone Age)

• The earliest period before farming.
• Upper Paleolithic culture in Europe (after 40,000 years ago) showcased flourishing art, technology (like the atlatl), and abstract thought.
• The Upper Paleolithic period witnessed advancements in art, technology, and abstract thought.

Neolithic Origins

• Marked by the origin of agriculture and the first writing system (e.g., cuneiform tablets approximately 5,200 years ago/ 3200 BCE).

Origins of Agriculture

• Agriculture emerged between 12,000 and 4,000 years ago, independently in various locations.

Domestication

• Domesticated plants have more seeds compared to their wild counterparts.
• Wild plants lose seeds easily when picked.
• Domesticated animals tend to be smaller, less dangerous, more docile, and more social than wild animals.

Agriculture: The Worst Mistake?

• Critics like Diamond argue that agriculture had negative consequences (e.g., social inequality, disease, despotism).
• Hunter-gatherers often had more free time and varied diets compared to agricultural societies.
• Archaeological evidence supports Diamond's argument. In particular, adoption of agriculture led to physical changes in the human body, such as decreased height. Some researchers have traced evidence that the adoption of maize and other starch-based crops resulted in dental problems and reduced lifespan in early farming communities.

Maya Collapse

• At Actuncan, Belize, infrastructures suggest fear of potential events.
• The Maya collapse involves the cessation of hieroglyphic monuments, warfare, abandonment of centers, and emigration to stable zones.

Chaco Canyon

• Chaco Canyon, in New Mexico, was a significant Anasazi site.
• Pueblo Bonito is a prominent great house with circular rooms (kivas).
• Agriculture (especially maize) was crucial for these inhabitants.
• The "Sun Dagger" is a significant astronomical feature that indicates solstices and equinoxes.

Applied Anthropology

• Applied Anthropology uses anthropological theories and methods to solve contemporary issues.
• Cultural relativism is essential, acknowledging diverse perspectives.
• Methods for applied anthropology may involve qualitative (ethnography, participant observation, interviews) and/or quantitative (surveys, statistical analysis) research methods.
• Applied Anthropology can use a variety of approaches including story maps to present findings visually to the public.

Adapting Agriculture in the Ancient Andes

• The Altiplano, a high-elevation region between Peru, Chile, and Bolivia, experienced climate-related and socio-political disruptions that impacted agricultural practices during the late intermediate period.
• Challenges include coping with risks from climate and warfare.
• Researchers studied paleoethnobotanical findings (plant remains) to understand strategies for coping with risk.
• Techniques for resource management involved migration, trade and exchange, landscape use (e.g., planting in different parts of the Andes), and grazing. Evidence from quinoa production is explored.

Thanksgiving's Origins

• The Wampanoag, a Native American confederacy, were among the groups encountered by British colonists.
• The "three sisters" (corn, beans, squash) formed a significant food source for the Wampanoag.
• Colonist's arrival resulted in disease epidemics for indigenous populations, significantly reducing their overall numbers.
• The 1621 harvest celebration, while a significant historical event, was not formalized as a national holiday until the 19th century. Pilgrims' encounters with the Wampanoag involved a complex mixture of alliance, conflict, and influence.