Applied Cryptography Lecture 7
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Questions and Answers

What does the value e in RSA represent?

  • Decryption exponent or private exponent
  • Encryption exponent or public exponent (correct)
  • Symmetric key length
  • Message length

What is the role of the private key d in RSA?

  • Decrypts messages for the recipient (correct)
  • Encrypts messages for the sender
  • Generates the public key
  • Manages key rotation

Which of the following is NOT a recommended practice for securing RSA?

  • Using a strong prime number generator
  • Using short prime numbers to speed up encryption (correct)
  • Having key lengths of at least 2048 bits
  • Performing regular key rotation

In the given example, what was the public key that Bob sent to Alice?

<p>(33, 3) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following techniques helps to speed up RSA encryption and decryption?

<p>Applying fast modular multiplication (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant drawback of symmetric cryptosystems?

<p>Key distribution and management are complicated. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why are public-key encryption schemes not typically used for bulk data encryption?

<p>They are substantially slower than symmetric-key encryption. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Bob publish in an asymmetric cryptography system?

<p>A public encryption key. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In asymmetric cryptography, what is the purpose of the private key?

<p>To decrypt messages encrypted with the public key. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of public-key algorithms?

<p>They utilize one-way functions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a well-known algorithm family based on integer-factorization schemes?

<p>RSA (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main computational challenge involved in one-way functions used in public-key cryptography?

<p>Making the forward function infeasible to evaluate inversely. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What problem does discrete logarithm schemes aim to address?

<p>Calculating logarithms in finite fields. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following algorithms is an example of an elliptic curve scheme?

<p>Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a security level of n bits imply about the algorithm's resistance to attacks?

<p>The best known attack requires $2n$ steps. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the RSA cryptosystem, what is the common application of RSA besides encryption?

<p>Digital signatures for certificates (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant advantage of elliptic curve schemes compared to RSA and discrete logarithm schemes?

<p>They require shorter key lengths for equal strength. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about the Euclidean algorithm is accurate?

<p>It determines the greatest common divisor (gcd) of two integers. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To achieve long-term security, which key length should be chosen for public-key algorithms?

<p>128-bit (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about key lengths in public-key algorithms is true?

<p>Higher key lengths result in slower algorithms but increased security. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does RSA stand for in the RSA cryptosystem?

<p>Ron, Shamir, Adleman (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Public Key Cryptography

A type of cryptography using two keys: a public key for encryption and a private key for decryption.

Symmetric Cryptosystems Shortcoming

The need for secure key exchange between communicating users.

Key Distribution

The process of securely sharing secret keys between parties.

Public-Key Encryption

Encryption using a public key that is known to everyone.

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Private Key

A secret key used for decryption in public key systems.

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One-Way Function

A function that is easy to compute in one direction but hard to compute in reverse.

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Integer Factorization

A type of public-key algorithm based on the difficulty of factoring large integers.

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Discrete Logarithm

A type of public-key algorithm based on the difficulty of finding discrete logarithms in finite fields.

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RSA Encryption

A public-key cryptosystem used for secure communication. It uses two keys: a public key for encryption and a private key for decryption.

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Public Key (n, e)

Used for encrypting messages. n is the product of two large prime numbers, and e is the encryption exponent.

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Private Key (d)

Used for decrypting messages encrypted using the corresponding public key. d is the decryption exponent.

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RSA Key Strength

The security of RSA encryption relies on the size of the prime numbers used to generate the public key. Larger primes make the system more resistant to attacks.

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Modular Exponentiation

A mathematical operation used in RSA to speed up encryption and decryption computations.

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Public-Key Algorithms

Encryption methods that use two separate keys: a public key for encryption and a private key for decryption. Examples include RSA, Diffie-Hellman, and Elliptic Curve algorithms.

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RSA Cryptosystem

Common public-key cryptosystem, used for encryption and digital signatures. Named after its inventors Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman.

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Security Level (n bit)

An algorithm's security level is measured by the number of steps the strongest known attack takes, often expressed as 2 to the power of 'n' (2n) steps.

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Key Length

The number of bits in a cryptographic key. Longer keys generally mean stronger security.

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Elliptic Curve (EC) Schemes

Public-key algorithms based on elliptic curves, offering potentially the same strength as other methods but with shorter key lengths.

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Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)

The largest positive integer that is a divisor of both numbers.

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Euler's Phi Function

A mathematical function that counts the number of positive integers less than or equal to a given integer n that are relatively prime to n.

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Study Notes

Applied Cryptography - Lecture #7

  • Topic: Public Key Cryptography I
  • Symmetric Cryptosystems Shortcomings
    • A key problem is key distribution and key management
    • Alice and Bob need a secret key for secure communication
    • Key exchange requires a secure channel or courier.
    • With n users, n(n-1)/2 secret key exchanges are necessary, all needing secure storage.
    • Digital signatures from symmetric-key encryption require large keys or a trusted third party (TTP).
  • Asymmetric Cryptography
    • Bob publishes a public encryption key, known by everyone
    • Bob has a matching secret key for decryption
    • Bob's key has public (kpub) and private (kpr) parts
    • Asymmetric systems are also called public-key cryptosystems
  • Asymmetric Cryptography - Basic Concepts
    • Public-key encryption schemes are substantially slower than symmetric-key algorithms like DES.
    • Public-key encryption is used for key transport, bulk data encryption, data integrity and authentication, and encrypting small data items (e.g., credit card numbers, PINs).
  • Asymmetric Cryptography - Protocol
    • Sender uses recipient's public key to encrypt
    • Recipient uses their private key to decrypt
    • Different keys are used for encryption and decryption

One-Way Function

  • Public-key algorithms rely on one-way functions.
  • Function f(x) where y = f(x) is computationally easy and x = f-1(y) is computationally infeasible.
  • Computation of y = f(x) needs to be fast, but the inverse computation has to be computationally intensive.

Public-Key Algorithm Families

  • Integer-Factorization Schemes: Difficult to factor large integers (e.g., RSA)
  • Discrete Logarithm Schemes: Based on the discrete logarithm problem in finite fields (e.g., Diffie-Hellman, Elgamal, DSA).
  • Elliptic Curve (EC) Schemes: Generalization of the discrete logarithm algorithm (e.g., ECDH, ECDSA).

Key Lengths and Security Levels

  • Public-key algorithm families rely on number theoretic functions needing long operands and keys
  • Longer operands/keys lead to greater security.
  • Security level (n-bit): the best attack requires 2n steps.
  • RSA-like and discrete-logarithm schemes typically require very long operands and keys.
  • EC schemes have significantly smaller key lengths while maintaining sufficient strength when compared to symmetric ciphers.
  • 128-bit security level usually required for long-term security.

RSA Cryptosystem

  • RSA (1977), invented by Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman, is the most widely used public-key cryptosystem.
  • Applications include:
    • Encryption of small pieces of data, especially for key transport
    • Digital signatures for digital certificates on the Internet.

Euclidean Algorithm

  • Used for calculating the greatest common divisor (gcd) of two positive integers (r0 and r1).
  • gcd(r0, r1) is the largest positive integer dividing both r0 and r1.

Euler's Phi Function

  • φ(m) is the number of integers in Zm that are relatively prime to m
  • Useful for public-key schemes (especially RSA). This is often used in modular arithmetic when dealing with RSA.

RSA Key Generation

  • Each entity creates an RSA public and private key.
    • Generate two large prime numbers p and q
    • Compute n = pq and φ(n) = (p-1)(q-1)
    • Select a random integer e (1 < e < φ(n)) such that gcd(e,φ(n)) = 1.
    • Find the unique integer d (1 < d < φ(n)) such that ed = 1 (mod φ(n)).
  • Public key (n, e)
  • Private key d

RSA Encryption and Decryption

  • Encryption: y = xe mod n (x is plaintext, y is ciphertext, e and n are from the public key)

  • Decryption: x = yd mod n (y is ciphertext, x is plaintext, d is the private key)

  • In practice, x, y, n, and d are very large numbers (often 1024-bit or more)

  • For Bob to send Alice an encrypted message, Alice must know Bob's public key. Bob decrypts with his private key

  • e is the encryption exponent, d is the decryption exponent.

RSA Encryption in Practice

  • Techniques to speed up RSA operations include fast modular multiplication and fast modular exponentiation, but, RSA encryption/decryption is nevertheless substantially slower than symmetric algorithms.

Avoiding RSA Vulnerabilities

  • Use a strong prime number generator to make prime numbers unpredictable and difficult to guess.
  • Use a minimum length of 2048 bits for the RSA key.
  • Securely manage and rotate RSA keys properly, using different keys for different applications if appropriate.

Exercise

  • Encrypt two messages (x1 and x2) using RSA with given parameters (p, q, e, d, x1, x2). Use the supplied values.

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Description

Explore the principles of Public Key Cryptography in this quiz. Understand the shortcomings of symmetric cryptosystems and the basics of asymmetric cryptography. Test your knowledge on key distribution, digital signatures, and public-key systems.

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