Intro to Neuroscience final exam
324 Questions
0 Views

Choose a study mode

Play Quiz
Study Flashcards
Spaced Repetition
Chat to Lesson

Podcast

Play an AI-generated podcast conversation about this lesson

Questions and Answers

What type of aphasia is primarily associated with damage to the sensory association cortex?

  • Motor aphasia
  • Broca’s aphasia
  • Wernicke’s aphasia (correct)
  • Non-fluent aphasia

Which artery's damage is likely to result in aphasia in the left cerebral hemisphere?

  • Anterior cerebral artery
  • Basilar artery
  • Middle cerebral artery (correct)
  • Posterior cerebral artery

What type of aphasia is characterized by deficits in speaking and writing due to frontal lobe damage?

  • Fluent aphasia
  • Sensory aphasia
  • Receptive aphasia
  • Expressive aphasia (correct)

Which of the following terms refers to the understanding of language when associated with auditory comprehension?

<p>Receptive aphasia (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What concept is associated with the sensations related to the word 'DOG'?

<p>Sensory comprehension (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary process involved in sound reading?

<p>Identifying letters and blending them together (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of dyslexia is characterized by difficulty in recognizing whole words but the ability to read phonetically?

<p>Surface dyslexia (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes phonological dyslexia?

<p>Difficulty reading familiar words (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is associated with the ability to read aloud but challenges in extracting meaning from written words?

<p>Direct dyslexia (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is primarily known about the neural basis of dyslexia?

<p>The problem is largely hereditary (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary characteristic of conduction aphasia?

<p>Inability to repeat heard words (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which area of the brain is NOT primarily related to conduction aphasia?

<p>Motor cortex (M1) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of language abilities does a person with conduction aphasia retain?

<p>Comprehension and meaningful speech (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How has Byron's understanding of language changed over five years?

<p>He has improved from 0% to 60% comprehension. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Broca's area influence in language processing?

<p>Articulation and grammar (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes Byron's current language abilities?

<p>He understands most of what he hears. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between Wernicke's area and Broca's area?

<p>They are interrelated through the arcuate fasciculus. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is crucial for improving language ability in individuals with aphasia?

<p>Continuously searching for new ideas on aphasia (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main cause of conduction aphasia?

<p>Damage around the arcuate fasciculus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which area is primarily responsible for recognizing sounds as spoken words?

<p>Wernicke's area (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes pure word deafness?

<p>Inability to comprehend or repeat spoken words (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining feature of Wernicke's aphasia?

<p>Fluent but largely meaningless speech (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Individuals with pure word deafness can perform which of the following activities?

<p>Read and write effectively (A), Interpret non-speech sounds (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Broca's aphasia primarily characterized by?

<p>Slow, laborious, nonfluent speech (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of aphasia do people with Wernicke's aphasia commonly experience?

<p>Transcortical sensory aphasia (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of language impairment is associated with receptive aphasias?

<p>Inability to understand words that are heard, read, or signed (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT one of the issues encompassed by Broca's aphasia?

<p>Difficulty with visual perception (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant difference between Wernicke's area and the primary auditory cortex?

<p>The primary auditory cortex processes sounds, while Wernicke's area recognizes them as words (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of speech production is primarily affected by damage to Broca's area?

<p>Articulation of words (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Individuals with agrammatism typically have trouble with which of the following?

<p>Constructing simple sentences (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do patients with Broca's aphasia generally retain despite their difficulties?

<p>A full understanding of spoken language (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of problems might occur due to articulation issues in Broca's aphasia?

<p>Slurred speech and unclear pronunciation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one way object recognition is primarily facilitated, according to visual perception?

<p>Observing where lines meet at junctions (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the condition of individuals who may have difficulty coming up with words but understand what they want to say?

<p>Broca’s aphasia (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the posterior language area?

<p>To comprehend language (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition is caused by damage to the posterior language area?

<p>Transcortical Sensory Aphasia (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following abilities are preserved in Transcortical Sensory Aphasia?

<p>Word repetition (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where is the posterior language area located in the brain?

<p>At the junction of the temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Byron's recovery implies that improvement in language abilities after a stroke can:

<p>Occur at any time, though not guaranteed (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which option best describes the ability to read without understanding in the context of Transcortical Sensory Aphasia?

<p>A common symptom of comprehension failure (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of language processing involves activation across sensory association cortices based on word representation?

<p>Word comprehension (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which area of the brain is primarily associated with speech production?

<p>Broca’s Area (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of emotions is processed in the neocortex?

<p>Cognitive thought about emotions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is primarily involved in the experience of fear?

<p>Limbic system (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many different classes of facial expression can people reliably discriminate?

<p>Six (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is considered a natural response involving complex muscle movements when expressing emotions?

<p>Facial expressions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What common misconception exists regarding people's ability to recognize emotions in social situations?

<p>Lack of emotion recognition indicates a lack of interest (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of expression is often reduced when individuals are alone?

<p>Facial expressions (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about recognizing emotions through facial expressions is true?

<p>It is an automatic and rapid process (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What typically characterizes innate facial expressions of emotion observed in infants?

<p>Universal responses shared across species (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the current understanding suggest about emotional facial expressions?

<p>The same expression can represent different emotions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT mentioned as part of the multimodal behavioral expressions of emotions?

<p>Dreams (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which sequence correctly represents the James-Lange theory of emotion?

<p>Emotional event → physiological response → subjective feelings. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What observation was made regarding individuals with spinal cord damage and their emotional experiences?

<p>Their emotional experience correlated with their level of physical sensation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the suggestion of about 25 unique emotional blends imply about emotional complexity?

<p>Emotions are varied and influenced by multiple factors. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about inferring emotions from facial expressions aligns with the content discussed?

<p>Facial expressions are often context-dependent and unreliable. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does interference with muscular movement related to emotions affect emotional experiences?

<p>It decreases the ability to fully experience that emotion. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary criticism of the traditional view of recognizing emotions in facial expressions?

<p>It emphasizes the universality of emotional expression. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition allows individuals to express genuine emotions while being unable to control facial muscles voluntarily?

<p>Volitional facial paresis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of emotional response involves involuntary facial expressions that are distinct from artificial expressions?

<p>Genuine expressions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the assessment of fear in monkeys, what method is primarily used to gauge their response to different stimuli?

<p>Measuring time to food-retrieval (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Emotional facial paresis is a condition often associated with which of the following diseases?

<p>Parkinson’s disease (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is true regarding emotional expressions observed in congenitally blind and sighted individuals?

<p>There are no significant differences in emotional expressions between different groups. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological responses are coupled with raw emotional feelings?

<p>Behavioral and autonomic responses (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which situation are individuals with emotional facial paresis most likely to show their inability?

<p>Controlling facial features during a performance (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common behavioral response associated with emotional reactions?

<p>Somatic muscular movements (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary behavior of individuals when recognizing emotions through facial expressions?

<p>They typically examine the eyes of the person. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does bilateral amygdala damage affect emotion recognition?

<p>It impairs the ability to naturally look at the eyes. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the central nucleus of the amygdala primarily serve?

<p>Regulating emotional responses, especially fear. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of lesions in the central nucleus of the amygdala?

<p>Reduction in both innate and learned fear responses. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What areas of the brain are involved in the recognition of emotions beyond the amygdala?

<p>The somatosensory cortex and visual association cortex. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does viewing threatening stimuli have on the central amygdala?

<p>It can elicit a stress response. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which emotional response can persist even in individuals with bilateral amygdala damage?

<p>Fear of suffocation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

People with damage to the primary visual cortex may still exhibit which characteristic regarding facial expressions?

<p>Unconscious amygdala activity in response to faces. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) in emotional regulation?

<p>To inhibit expressions of emotions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens when the connections between the vmPFC and amygdala are strengthened?

<p>Fear memories are extinguished (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does damage to the vmPFC manifest in a person's behavior?

<p>Childlike and irresponsible behavior (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does low serotonin have on behavior according to the findings in rhesus monkeys?

<p>Heightened impulsivity and risk-taking (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a likely consequence of lesioning the vmPFC-amygdala pathway?

<p>Restoration of extinguished fear responses (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What behavioral changes did Phineas Gage exhibit after his vmPFC injury?

<p>Having severe temper outbursts (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of behavior is correlated with low levels of the serotonin metabolite 5-HIAA?

<p>Risky and aggressive behavior (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are emotional responses regulated according to the interactions between the PFC and amygdala?

<p>The vmPFC inhibits emotional responses (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the amygdala in the brain?

<p>Feeling and recognizing emotions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding the effect of cutting sensory nerves between internal organs and the central nervous system?

<p>It does not abolish emotional behavior. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did patient S.P. struggle with after her bilateral amygdalectomy?

<p>Identifying expressions of fear (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is primarily responsible for explicit memory formation?

<p>Hippocampus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What emotion did patient S.P. retain the ability to recognize after her surgery?

<p>Anger (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the limbic system interconnects many brain areas and plays a role in emotional response?

<p>Cingulate cortex (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was observed about injecting hormones or activating the autonomic nervous system regarding emotions?

<p>It does not reliably produce specific emotions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'cingulate' refer to in the context of the cingulate cortex?

<p>Encircling regions of the brain (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason why atherosclerosis increases the risk of stroke?

<p>It leads to the formation of plaques that narrow the arteries. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of strokes are classified as ischemic strokes?

<p>87% (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement describes a thrombus?

<p>A blood clot that forms within a blood vessel. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What contributes significantly to the development of atherosclerosis?

<p>Age, high blood pressure, and smoking. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common outcome of a stroke, regardless of its severity?

<p>Permanent brain damage. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of an angiogram in the context of stroke risk assessment?

<p>To visualize narrowing of arteries caused by plaques. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining characteristic of complex partial seizures?

<p>They involve a loss of consciousness. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which phase occurs first during a tonic-clonic seizure?

<p>Tonic phase (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is most directly associated with the blockage of a cerebral blood vessel?

<p>Ischemic stroke. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What differentiates absence seizures from other types of seizures?

<p>They are brief and often go unnoticed. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What therapy approaches are often used to improve brain function after a stroke?

<p>Physical, occupational, and speech therapy. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about tonic-clonic seizures is TRUE?

<p>They can involve rhythmic jerking movements. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of an aura in a seizure?

<p>It often signifies the onset of a seizure. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why are children particularly susceptible to seizure disorders?

<p>Their brains are still developing. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What typically characterizes simple partial seizures?

<p>They focus on a specific area of the brain. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary phase characterized by contracted muscles during a tonic-clonic seizure?

<p>Tonic phase (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of thrombolytic drugs like tPA in the context of ischemic strokes?

<p>To dissolve blood clots and restore circulation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of tumor can metastasize and lacks a distinct border?

<p>Malignant tumor (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do malignant tumors primarily differ from non-malignant tumors?

<p>Malignant tumors can regrow after removal (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process describes how tumor cells can spread to other parts of the body?

<p>Metastasis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a benign tumor?

<p>It has a distinct border and cannot metastasize (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common treatment approach for removing blood clots during an ischemic stroke?

<p>Drug therapy with thrombolytics (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What complication can arise due to compression from a tumor in the brain?

<p>Development of hydrocephalus (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do physical, speech, and occupational therapies play after a stroke?

<p>They aid in rehabilitation and recovery of functions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the brains of individuals with Down syndrome after age 30?

<p>They begin to degenerate similar to Alzheimer's disease. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the remitting-relapsing form of multiple sclerosis?

<p>Symptoms that appear and recede in cycles. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which treatment for multiple sclerosis helps modulate immune system activity?

<p>Interferon β (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which demographic factor is associated with a higher risk of developing multiple sclerosis?

<p>Growing up far from the equator. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary physiological effect of multiple sclerosis on the central nervous system?

<p>Destruction of white matter due to immune response. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of anticonvulsant drugs in treating seizure disorders?

<p>To increase the effectiveness of inhibitory synapses (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which virus is known to potentially impair fetal brain development during pregnancy?

<p>Zika virus (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition is associated with alcohol consumption during the third and fourth week of pregnancy?

<p>Fetal alcohol syndrome (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which inherited metabolic disorder results from an absence of an enzyme converting phenylalanine to tyrosine?

<p>Phenylketonuria (PKU) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic feature of Down syndrome?

<p>It results from an extra twenty-first chromosome. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the key dangers posed by exposure to heavy metals during pregnancy?

<p>Impairment of fetal brain development (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of untreated Tay-Sachs disease?

<p>Accumulation of waste products in the brain (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one common result of inherited metabolic disorders?

<p>Disruption of normal brain development (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary characteristic of gliomas compared to most tumor cells?

<p>They originate from neural stem cells. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of encephalitis?

<p>Inflammation of the brain due to infection. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of tumor is described as encapsulated but potentially harmful due to brain damage?

<p>Meningioma (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common initial symptom of meningitis?

<p>Severe headache and stiff neck (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following viruses is known for destroying motor neurons?

<p>Polio virus (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What triggers cellular apoptosis in neurodegenerative diseases?

<p>High concentrations of misfolded proteins (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following neurodegenerative diseases is linked to a clear genetic mutation?

<p>Huntington's disease (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a unique characteristic of prion diseases compared to other infectious agents?

<p>Prions only consist of misfolded proteins (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best describes the effect of misfolded prion proteins?

<p>They can convert correctly folded proteins to misfolded forms (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of prion disease is characterized by making the brain appear spongy?

<p>Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical outcome of prion protein diseases regarding life expectancy?

<p>Death usually occurs within a year (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does evolution relate to proteins in the context of neurodegenerative diseases?

<p>Evolution favors proteins that are resistant to clumping (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primary biological mechanism do cells use to manage misfolded proteins?

<p>Protein folding assistance (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to alleles that increase reproductive success by a small margin?

<p>They spread throughout the population over generations. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does it mean for a gene to go to fixationwithin a population?

<p>Every individual in the population has a similar version of the gene. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key factor in the persistence of harmful gene variants in today's human population?

<p>Rapid environmental and lifestyle changes have occurred. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When did humans experience rapid changes in physical traits such as skin color and facial characteristics?

<p>Over the last 50,000 years. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What undergoes evolutionary pressure and could potentially go to fixation over time?

<p>Alleles that can either harm or protect from disease. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is likely to occur if the environment and lifestyle remain unchanged over the next hundred generations?

<p>Good genes will likely go to fixation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How common are gene mutations associated with advantageous traits compared to harmful traits?

<p>Advantageous traits have gone to fixation more easily. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant outcome of gene mutations that occurred in human history?

<p>Specific adaptations to various environmental niches. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What part of the brain becomes overactive in Parkinson's disease that is targeted by Deep Brain Stimulation?

<p>Globus pallidus (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which protein aggregates are associated with Alzheimer's disease?

<p>Beta-amyloid protein (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary dysfunction caused by hyper-phosphorylated tau protein in Alzheimer's disease?

<p>Intracellular transport disruption (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of the population over 65 years old is affected by Alzheimer's disease?

<p>10% (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic finding in the brains of Alzheimer’s patients?

<p>Extra-cellular amyloid plaques (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The gene for the beta-amyloid precursor protein is located on which chromosome?

<p>Chromosome 21 (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of secretase enzymes in Alzheimer's disease pathology?

<p>Cut beta-amyloid precursor protein (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Mutations in which protein can lead to early onset Alzheimer’s disease by generating abnormal forms of beta-amyloid?

<p>Presenilin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) in the body?

<p>Transport cholesterol and aid in cellular repair (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors is most strongly associated with an increased risk of Alzheimer's disease?

<p>Traumatic brain injury (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of ALS cases are inherited?

<p>10% (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical life span following an ALS diagnosis?

<p>2-4 years (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which treatment option is currently under research for Alzheimer's disease?

<p>Immunotherapy targeting Aβ or Tau proteins (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What common condition is associated with gene variants that increase risk for neurodegenerative disorders?

<p>Heart disease (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is associated with lower prevalence of Alzheimer's disease?

<p>Higher education levels and mental activity (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom is NOT typically associated with ALS?

<p>Increased coordination (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary component of Lewy bodies found in midbrain dopamine neurons of individuals with Parkinson's disease?

<p>Misfolded alpha-synuclein protein (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does parkin play in the cell?

<p>Targets misfolded proteins for degradation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of genetic mutation results in the absence of a necessary protein in Parkinson's disease?

<p>Loss of function (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of ubiquitination in the context of misfolded proteins?

<p>To target proteins for degradation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which treatment effectively alleviates motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease for many years?

<p>Daily administration of L-dopa (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What consequence results from defective parkin in dopaminergic neurons?

<p>Accumulation of misfolded proteins (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes toxic gain of function mutations?

<p>Contributing to the production of proteins that are harmful (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one potential side effect of dopamine receptor agonists used in treating Parkinson's disease?

<p>Peripheral nervous system effects (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the estimated percentage of women who never have a biological child?

<p>15% (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the fertility rate of individuals with 'severe' mental illness compare to the national average?

<p>It is about half. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why do slightly harmful gene mutations remain common in the human population?

<p>They are inherited for multiple generations. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the presence of multiple alleles in the gene pool imply?

<p>Some alleles may be mildly beneficial or harmful. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason very harmful gene mutations tend to be rare in the population?

<p>They significantly reduce reproductive success. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the nature of gene mutations in terms of their frequency in the population?

<p>Common mutations are not always detrimental to reproductive success. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does natural selection generally affect harmful gene mutations?

<p>It eliminates them from the gene pool rapidly. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the genetic variation in humans suggest about the alleles present in the population?

<p>Some alleles may provide advantages under certain conditions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the concordance rate for schizophrenia among genetically identical twins?

<p>50% (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primarily reflects the predisposition to schizophrenia?

<p>Genetic predisposition (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why might schizophrenia susceptibility genes persist in the gene pool?

<p>They improve reproductive success in certain combinations. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of the general population is affected by schizophrenia?

<p>4% (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is largely suggested to trigger the onset of schizophrenia?

<p>Abusive childhood (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the estimated reproductive success rate of individuals with severe mental disorders like schizophrenia?

<p>They have half as many children. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant environmental risk factor for developing schizophrenia that has been studied?

<p>Viral infections (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What could be the impact of common gene variants associated with schizophrenia?

<p>They enhance cognitive abilities in some individuals. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physical abnormalities might be observed in children who develop schizophrenia?

<p>Partial webbing of the two middle toes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of medication primarily alleviates the positive symptoms of schizophrenia?

<p>Dopamine receptor antagonists (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Dopamine Hypothesis suggest about schizophrenia?

<p>It is linked to excessive dopamine D2 receptor activity. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which symptoms of schizophrenia are typically reduced by dopamine D2 receptor antagonists?

<p>Positive symptoms (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential consequence of the negative symptoms of schizophrenia?

<p>Long-term disability and poor functional outcomes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What brain region is associated with the negative symptoms of schizophrenia?

<p>Prefrontal cortex (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What substances are known to temporarily elicit symptoms similar to those of schizophrenia in non-afflicted individuals?

<p>Dopamine receptor agonists (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is often a result of damage to the prefrontal cortex in relation to schizophrenia?

<p>Diminished social cognition (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does heritability measure in relation to traits within a population?

<p>The proportion of variation not explained by environment or chance (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which environmental factor has been linked to an increased likelihood of developing schizophrenia during prenatal development?

<p>Season of birth (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the likelihood of an individual developing schizophrenia if an identical twin is affected?

<p>50% (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors is NOT mentioned as a potential environmental contributor to schizophrenia?

<p>Exposure to loud noises (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about monochorionic twins and schizophrenia is most accurate based on the content?

<p>They tend to have a higher concordance rate for schizophrenia. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of schizophrenia cases is attributed to rare gene copy number variations?

<p>5% (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of the brain does a few peculiarities in structure or function suggest?

<p>The complexity and variability of brain development (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What contributes to the robustness of human brain development despite gene mutations?

<p>Redundancies and error checking mechanisms in the genome (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is suggested as a potential prenatal environmental influence on brain development?

<p>Mother's stress levels (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the seasonality effect related to schizophrenia?

<p>Higher prevalence in February to May (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is body symmetry related to developmental robustness?

<p>Body symmetry may signal confusion in genetic instructions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a high occurrence of brain peculiarities indicate in individuals with mental illness?

<p>Inconsistent neurological conditions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following traits correlates with body symmetry?

<p>Intelligence and physical attractiveness (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What impact does molecular noise have on brain development?

<p>Creates unavoidable variations in brain development (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best captures the relationship between gene variants and mental illness?

<p>Individuals with similar diagnoses rarely share the same gene variants (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the genome's structural redundancy contribute to brain development?

<p>It facilitates the accumulation of minor mutations in the population (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the gene mutation-selection balance in relation to mental illness suggest?

<p>Sustained harmful mutations can persist due to new mutations emerging. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT recommended for maintaining a healthy brain and body?

<p>Ignoring sleep habits to stay active. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant challenge in identifying gene variants associated with mental illness?

<p>It has limited practical application for treatment or prevention. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the impact of mutations in genes related to brain function?

<p>Mutations in any of these genes can increase the risk of mental illness. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential future direction in mental health research involving gene variants?

<p>Exploring gene editing techniques for treatment and prevention. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is indicated by the expression of half of the human genome in the brain?

<p>An extensive number of genes play roles in brain function and development. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why may mental illness not arise solely from specific gene mutations?

<p>An unfortunate combination across multiple mutations may disrupt brain dynamics. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a common misconception about gene variants related to mental illness?

<p>Gene variants provide a clear guide for prevention and treatment. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary relationship between dopamine levels and the symptoms of schizophrenia?

<p>Excess dopamine in the striatum is linked to positive symptoms. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What mechanism does clozapine use in treating schizophrenia?

<p>It blocks dopamine D2 and serotonin 2A receptors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of aripiprazole on dopamine receptor activity?

<p>It boosts dopamine receptor activity in the prefrontal cortex. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter receptor is primarily targeted by atypical antipsychotics beyond dopamine D2?

<p>Serotonin 1A (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What general pattern is observed regarding dopamine levels in schizophrenia?

<p>High dopamine in the striatum and low dopamine in the prefrontal cortex. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes a partial agonist in pharmacology?

<p>A drug that has high receptor affinity but activates it less than the normal ligand. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which action is a characteristic of atypical antipsychotic medications?

<p>They aim to reduce both positive and negative symptoms. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does reduced dopamine signaling in the prefrontal cortex relate to schizophrenia?

<p>It may underlie some of the negative symptoms. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What differentiates neurodevelopmental disorders from mental illnesses?

<p>Neurodevelopmental disorders are evident in childhood or at birth. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these neurodevelopmental disorders is reported to be more common in males?

<p>Tourette’s syndrome (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a proposed reason for the observed sex differences in the prevalence of certain disorders?

<p>Societal perceptions may influence diagnosis. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How much more common is autism in males compared to females?

<p>4 times more common (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of anxiety and depressive disorders in males, according to prevailing theories?

<p>They may be underdiagnosed due to perceptual biases. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is true regarding the presentation of symptoms in males and females?

<p>Women may be better at masking symptoms in some cases. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can contribute to the perception of sex differences in diagnosing disorders?

<p>Cultural influences on symptom perception (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neurodevelopment disorder is noted to be twice as common in males?

<p>Intellectual disability (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage range reflects the heritability of autism?

<p>70% to 90% (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor has been linked to some cases of autism during pregnancy?

<p>Maternal viral infections (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one potential hypothesis for the early brain growth spurt observed in autistic children?

<p>Altered neuronal migration (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of bipolar disorder?

<p>Periods of sustained euphoria and severe depression (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How prevalent is major depressive disorder (MDD) in men?

<p>3% (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which brain region often shows less activity in individuals with autism when viewing human faces?

<p>Fusiform face area (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about the treatment for bipolar disorder is true?

<p>Once mania is eliminated, depression does not typically follow (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary goal of treatment for children with autism?

<p>Decrease family distress (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do environmental factors play in the risks associated with major depressive disorder?

<p>They can include traumatic experiences that increase risk (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of early intervention may significantly benefit children with autism?

<p>Intensive, sustained special education (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect do medications generally fail to address in children with autism?

<p>Core symptoms (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What describes the episodes of mania experienced in bipolar disorder?

<p>Episodes of euphoria with decreased need for sleep (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common characteristic of brain development in autistic children by age 2-3?

<p>Total brain volume may be larger (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of individuals are reported to have bipolar disorder?

<p>2% (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a well-documented risk factor for developing mood disorders?

<p>Genetics (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a symptom of mania?

<p>Withdrawal from social activities (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main action of tricyclic antidepressants?

<p>Inhibit reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which biological treatment for major depressive disorder is known for its rapid action on symptoms?

<p>Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the monoamine hypothesis in understanding depression?

<p>It connects depression to insufficient activity of monoamine receptors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a mechanism of action for serotonin specific reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)?

<p>Modulating dopamine receptor activity (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What neurotransmitter's synthesis is primarily affected by low-tryptophan diets?

<p>Serotonin (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which experimental treatment uses electrical impulses to stimulate specific brain regions?

<p>Deep brain stimulation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do SSRIs and SNRIs typically differ in their action?

<p>SSRIs specifically affect serotonin reuptake. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following treatments for major depressive disorder has been associated with readiness to act on depressive symptoms?

<p>Electroconvulsive therapy (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary benefit of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in treating severe depression?

<p>It produces immediate antidepressant effects. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which biological treatment has shown rapid effects similar to ECT?

<p>Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a notable feature of REM sleep in individuals suffering from depression?

<p>They experience REM sleep more frequently. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the likely effect of total sleep deprivation on mood?

<p>It has an immediate antidepressant effect. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the result of clinical trials targeting the subgenual anterior cingulate for depression?

<p>They showed inconclusive results for targeting the area. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of sleep is most commonly reported as a symptom of depression?

<p>Frequent awakenings during the night (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes the effects of biological treatments from monoamine-related treatments?

<p>Biological treatments are typically faster in alleviating symptoms. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does sleep deprivation influence mood in the context of depression?

<p>It may lead to temporary relief from depressive symptoms. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is more common in females compared to males in terms of mental health diagnoses?

<p>Major depression (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which explains why males with autism may present more severe symptoms than females?

<p>Females have more protective factors against autism (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do sex chromosomes differ between males and females in mammals?

<p>Females have XX chromosomes, while males have XY (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a factor that potentially contributes to the higher incidence of autism in males?

<p>Greater number of harmful gene variants in males (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is true regarding CNVs (copy number variations) in relation to autism?

<p>Males with CNVs show much higher symptom severity (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of developmental stability is suggested to be influenced by sex chromosomes?

<p>One X chromosome in males leads to more developmental instability (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What might explain fluctuations in the incidence of anxiety and depression among females?

<p>Hormonal fluctuations associated with life stages (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why might perceptual biases alone not fully account for the differences in autism diagnoses between sexes?

<p>Neurodevelopment disorders are diagnosed at very young ages (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What therapeutic process involves inducing seizures to alleviate severe depression?

<p>Electroconvulsive Therapy (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common symptom of depression related to sleep patterns?

<p>Fragmented sleep with frequent awakenings (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following sleep interventions has been shown to have an immediate antidepressant effect?

<p>Total Sleep Deprivation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What typically happens to individuals entering REM sleep when they are depressed?

<p>They enter it sooner after falling asleep (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does chronic stress affect health over time?

<p>It can cause adverse effects on health (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What has been observed concerning the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex in depressed individuals?

<p>It becomes less active after depression symptoms subside (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which treatment for depression does NOT appear to cause any brain damage?

<p>Electroconvulsive Therapy (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does long-term chronic stress have on the body?

<p>It can have detrimental health impacts (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common symptom of PTSD?

<p>Vivid flashbacks of traumatic events (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone-related condition can result from stress caused by trauma?

<p>Steroid diabetes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What treatment is considered first-line for managing PTSD?

<p>Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does stress affect the immune system?

<p>It weakens the immune system. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which is NOT a typical symptom of anxiety disorders?

<p>Realistic evaluations of danger (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What contributes to the development of PTSD after trauma exposure?

<p>Both B and C (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following conditions is related to muscle tension due to stress?

<p>Gastric ulcers (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement regarding the hippocampus and PTSD is true?

<p>Smaller hippocampal size correlates with more severe PTSD symptoms. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of generalized anxiety disorder?

<p>Excessive anxiety and worry (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which disorder is defined by a fear of being scrutinized in social situations?

<p>Social anxiety disorder (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition often develops as a result of anticipatory anxiety related to panic attacks?

<p>Agoraphobia (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of people develop social anxiety disorder at some point in their life?

<p>10% (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which combination is believed to contribute to anxiety disorders?

<p>Genetic and environmental factors (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines the phenomenon of tolerance in drug use?

<p>The requirement of larger doses to achieve the same effect due to compensatory mechanisms. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one common environmental risk factor associated with anxiety disorders?

<p>History of child abuse (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which treatment is often considered a first-line option for anxiety disorders?

<p>Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does withdrawal manifest in individuals when they cease drug use?

<p>Through the appearance of symptoms that counteract the drug's effects. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of people are affected by an anxiety disorder each year?

<p>12% (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant factor in the concept of negative reinforcement in addiction?

<p>It involves the removal of negative feelings caused by withdrawal symptoms. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does physical dependence encompass in relation to drug use?

<p>The experience of both tolerance and withdrawal symptoms. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which mental disorders commonly coexist with substance addiction, illustrating comorbidity?

<p>Anxiety disorders and schizophrenia. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does Naltrexone play in the treatment of addiction?

<p>It acts as an opioid receptor antagonist to reduce the drug's high. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What neurological factors are suggested to contribute to addiction and certain mental illnesses?

<p>Deficits in the prefrontal cortex contributing to decision-making issues. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what way can drug cravings be described in relation to withdrawal symptoms?

<p>They often last longer than the physical withdrawal effects. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common therapeutic approach for treating Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)?

<p>Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method has been used to treat severe cases of OCD?

<p>Deep brain stimulation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following substances is considered an addictive drug?

<p>Alcohol (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do genetics play in the risk of developing alcoholism?

<p>They account for 40-60% of the risk (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which brain region is implicated in the release of dopamine when reinforced by addictive behaviors?

<p>Nucleus accumbens (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic tends to increase the addictive potential of a drug?

<p>Immediate consequences of behavior (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following issues is commonly associated with alcohol abuse?

<p>Increased risk of liver disease (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between reinforcement learning and addictive behaviors?

<p>Positive reinforcement drives addictive behaviors (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of naloxone in the context of opioid overdose?

<p>It acts as a rapid opioid receptor antagonist. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which opioid treatment allows patients to take medication home while reducing potential for abuse?

<p>Buprenorphine (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of methadone maintenance programs?

<p>Patients are required to visit a clinic daily. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is primarily known for what?

<p>Stimulating the cerebral cortex non-invasively. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of receptor does varenicline act on to treat nicotine addiction?

<p>Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does deep brain stimulation aim to achieve in treating addiction?

<p>Modulating neural circuits associated with addiction. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes the effect of naloxone?

<p>It can elicit withdrawal symptoms during an overdose. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one potential side effect of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)?

<p>Mild headaches or discomfort. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Wernicke's Aphasia

Language disorder affecting understanding of spoken and written language, causing difficulty comprehending words and sentences.

Broca's Aphasia

Language disorder affecting the production of speech and writing, causing difficulty forming words and sentences.

Posterior Aphasia

Aphasia type resulting from damage to the sensory association cortex, leading to problems with understanding language.

Anterior Aphasia

Aphasia type resulting from damage in the frontal lobe, characterized by issues in speaking and writing.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Word Comprehension

The cognitive process of understanding the meaning of words (such as 'dog') when heard, spoken, read, or written.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Language Comprehension

Understanding the meaning of words, regardless of how they are presented (spoken, heard, or read).

Signup and view all the flashcards

Posterior Language Area

Brain area crucial for language comprehension, located where the temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes meet.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Transcortical Sensory Aphasia

Language disorder causing difficulty understanding words and expressing thoughts meaningfully, despite potentially intact word perception and speaking abilities.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Receptive Aphasia

Difficulty understanding spoken, written, or signed words.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Fluent Aphasia

Speaking is relatively smooth, but words are used incorrectly, often making the language nonsensical.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Sensory Association Cortex

Brain regions that process sensory information (like sight, touch, or sound) associated with word meanings.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Word Repetition

Repeating words or phrases, often exhibited in language disorders, such as Transcortical Sensory Aphasia.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Conduction Aphasia

A language disorder where repeating words is difficult, but other language skills like speaking and understanding are relatively fine.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Arcuate Fasciculus

A bundle of nerve fibers that connect Wernicke's area (language comprehension) and Broca's area (speech production).

Signup and view all the flashcards

Wernicke's Area

Brain region responsible for understanding spoken language.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Broca's Area

Brain region responsible for producing speech.

Signup and view all the flashcards

VWFA

Region in the brain that recognizes written words.

Signup and view all the flashcards

M1

The primary motor cortex, responsible for controlling voluntary movements.

Signup and view all the flashcards

A1

The primary auditory cortex, responsible for processing sound.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Pure Word Deafness

Inability to understand spoken words due to damage in Wernicke's area, while still being able to hear and interpret non-speech sounds.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is sight reading?

Recognizing words as complete units without sounding them out, like recognizing a friend's face.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is sound reading?

Decoding words letter by letter, sounding out each syllable to understand the word.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Surface dyslexia

Difficulty recognizing complete words, but retaining the ability to sound them out.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Phonological dyslexia

Difficulty reading unfamiliar words or made-up words, even if familiar words are easily read.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is developmental dyslexia?

A difficulty learning to read despite normal intelligence, often involving trouble with sound sequences and grammar.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Articulation Problems

Difficulty forming and producing sounds due to issues with the movement of tongue, lips, jaw, and other speech organs.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Agrammatism

Difficulty understanding and using grammar, such as verb endings and word order.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Visual Word Perception

The ability to perceive and interpret written words, often associated with the VWFA.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Object Recognition Cues

Features of objects that remain consistent regardless of viewing angle, helping the visual system recognize them.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Junctions (L, T, X)

Points where lines meet in an object, forming specific shapes like L, T, and X, which are important cues for recognition.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Direct Dyslexia

A type of dyslexia where there's a primary deficit in the ability to perceive and process written words, often involving the VWFA.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Limbic System

A group of brain structures involved in processing emotions, memory, and motivation.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Amygdala

A brain structure crucial for processing fear and other negative emotions.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Neocortex

The outer layer of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions, including conscious thinking and emotion regulation.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Universal Facial Expressions

Innate, natural expressions of emotions that are recognized across cultures, like smiling for happiness or frowning for sadness.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Emotional Recognition

The ability to identify and understand other people's emotions through their facial expressions, body language, and tone of voice.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Automatic Emotional Recognition

Recognizing emotions in others quickly and effortlessly, without needing to actively think about it.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Motivation in Emotional Recognition

The desire and effort put into understanding someone else's emotions, even if it doesn't come naturally.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Intuition in Emotional Recognition

Recognizing emotions based on an instinctive feeling rather than conscious reasoning.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Facial Expressions and Emotions

Facial expressions are not always reliable indicators of emotions. The same expression can convey different emotions, and different expressions can convey the same emotion.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Multimodal Emotion Expression

Emotions are expressed through various channels like voice, touch, posture, gaze, and body movements, not just facial expressions.

Signup and view all the flashcards

James-Lange Theory

This theory suggests that physiological responses (like trembling or sweating) come first, and these responses then trigger our subjective feeling of emotion.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Early Research on Emotions

Studies on individuals with spinal cord injuries showed that they experienced emotions less intensely, suggesting a link between bodily sensations and emotional intensity.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Emotion-Eliciting Event

An event that triggers an emotional response, such as seeing a spider or receiving good news.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Subjective Feelings of Emotion

The personal experience of an emotion, such as feeling happy, sad, angry, or fearful.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Behavioral and Physiological Responses

Physical reactions to an emotion, such as increased heart rate, sweating, or crying.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Interference with Muscular Movement

Interfering with the physical actions associated with an emotion (like frowning) can slightly reduce the intensity of that emotion.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Emotional Facial Paresis

A condition where people don't show automatic facial expressions of emotion, but can voluntarily move their facial muscles. Often seen in Parkinson's Disease.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Volitional Facial Paresis

A condition where people can't voluntarily control their facial muscles (due to damage in the motor cortex) but can still express genuine emotions.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Assessing Fear in Animals

Researchers study how animals react to stimuli like snakes, spiders, and neutral objects to understand fear. This includes observing their behavior, physiological responses, and time taken for food retrieval.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Behavioral Responses to Fear

These are outward physical reactions to fear, including facial expressions, body postures, and movements.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Autonomic Responses to Fear

These are involuntary bodily reactions to fear, including increased heart rate, breathing, sweating, and muscle tension. They prepare the body for 'fight or flight'.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Hormonal Responses to Fear

These are chemical changes in the body that reinforce the autonomic responses to fear. They help mobilize energy and prepare the body for action.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Why Do People Care More About Activities They Struggle With?

Individuals often care more about activities they actively struggle with because they experience frustration and see it as something they have to work at. It's a personal challenge unlike for others who find it easier.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Cingulate Cortex

A brain region that wraps around the corpus callosum, connecting various limbic areas. It plays a role in attention, decision-making, and emotional processing.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Hippocampus

A part of the limbic system crucial for forming new explicit memories, especially for events and facts.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Emotions in Others

The ability to perceive and understand the emotions expressed by others. It involves interpreting facial expressions, body language, and vocal cues.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Amygdalectomy

Surgical removal of the amygdala, a part of the brain involved in processing emotions. It can lead to a reduced ability to experience and recognize fear, particularly in recognizing fear in others.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Emotions after Amygdalectomy

Patients who undergo amygdalectomy often experience difficulties recognizing fear, but they can still generate artificial expressions of emotion, highlighting the complex role of the amygdala in emotional processing.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Emotional Experiences

Our capacity to experience and respond to emotions relies on a complex interaction between our internal organs, nervous system, and brain structures like the limbic system. Simple interventions like botox injections highlight that the emotional experience is more than just the physical manifestation of the emotion itself.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Amygdala Damage

A condition where the amygdala, a brain region involved in emotional processing, is damaged.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Central Nucleus of Amygdala

The central part of the amygdala, primarily responsible for regulating fear responses.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Fear Response

The body's reaction to threats, including physiological changes (heart rate, breathing), behavioral changes (freezing, fleeing), and emotional changes (alarm, anxiety).

Signup and view all the flashcards

Eye Contact for Emotion

We naturally look at people's eyes to understand their emotions, especially the expression in their eyes.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Amygdala's Role in Face Recognition

The amygdala plays a crucial role in recognizing emotional expressions on faces, particularly fear.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Beyond the Amygdala

Several brain regions beyond the amygdala contribute to emotional recognition, including the somatosensory cortex, insular cortex, and premotor cortex.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Right Hemisphere in Emotion

The right hemisphere of the brain plays a significant role in recognizing emotions in others, particularly facial expressions.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Emotional Recognition Deficit

A condition where individuals struggle to identify and understand emotions in others, often due to damage in specific brain regions.

Signup and view all the flashcards

vmPFC Role in Emotion

The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) helps regulate emotional expressions, usually by inhibiting them. It plays a key role in suppressing strong emotional reactions.

Signup and view all the flashcards

vmPFC and Fear Extinction

When learned fears are extinguished, the connections between the vmPFC and amygdala strengthen. This helps reduce the fear response.

Signup and view all the flashcards

vmPFC Damage and Emotion

Damage to the vmPFC can lead to difficulty controlling emotions, similar to how children struggle with emotional regulation.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Phineas Gage's Case

Phineas Gage, after a traumatic brain injury affecting his vmPFC, experienced dramatic changes in personality. He became impulsive, irresponsible, and lacked emotional control.

Signup and view all the flashcards

vmPFC and Decision-Making

While not affecting cognitive skills strongly, damage to the vmPFC impairs decision-making by impacting emotional regulation.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Risky Behavior and Serotonin

Low serotonin levels are associated with risky behavior and impulsive aggression.

Signup and view all the flashcards

5-HIAA and Risk-Taking

Monkeys with low levels of the serotonin metabolite 5-HIAA in their cerebrospinal fluid were more likely to engage in risky behaviors and aggression.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Serotonin and Early Death

Monkeys with low serotonin levels were more likely to die early due to their risky behaviors and aggression.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is Atherosclerosis?

A process where fatty plaques build up inside arteries, narrowing them and increasing the risk of heart attacks and strokes. These plaques are made of cholesterol, fats, calcium, and waste products.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is an Ischemic Stroke?

An ischemic stroke occurs when a blood clot blocks a blood vessel in the brain, cutting off oxygen supply to brain tissue.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is a Hemorrhagic Stroke?

A hemorrhagic stroke happens when a blood vessel in the brain bursts, causing bleeding into the brain tissues.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What are the Effects of a Stroke?

The extent of brain damage caused by a stroke depends on the size of the affected blood vessel. While permanent damage may occur, therapy can significantly improve brain function.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What are Risk Factors for Stroke?

Factors like high blood pressure, smoking, diabetes, high cholesterol, obesity, poor diet, and lack of exercise contribute to an increased risk of stroke.

Signup and view all the flashcards

How does Atherosclerosis relate to Stroke?

Atherosclerotic plaques, which are fat deposits that narrow arteries, often form in the internal carotid artery supplying the brain. This narrowing dramatically increases the risk of a stroke.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is the Role of the Internal Carotid Artery?

This artery is a major blood vessel supplying blood to the cerebral hemispheres of the brain. It's a key route for oxygen and nutrients to reach the brain.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is an Angiogram?

An angiogram is a medical imaging technique used to visualize blood vessels. A radiopaque dye is injected into the blood, allowing doctors to see the arteries with an X-ray.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is a thrombolysis?

Treatment for an ischemic stroke involving using drugs to dissolve blood clots and restore circulation.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What are the benefits of giving tPA quickly?

tPA, a thrombolytic drug, is most effective within 3-4 hours after an ischemic stroke, maximizing its ability to dissolve clots and restore bloodflow.

Signup and view all the flashcards

How do tumor cells differ?

Malignant tumors are cancerous and lack distinct borders, allowing them to invade surrounding tissues. Benign tumors are noncancerous, have distinct borders, and cannot spread.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What's the difference between a malignant and a non-malignant tumor?

The main difference is the presence of a distinct border between the tumor and surrounding tissue. Non-malignant tumors have a distinct border and can be surgically removed. Malignant tumors lack a distinct border and can spread to other tissues.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What are two ways tumors cause damage?

Tumors, both malignant and benign, can damage brain tissue by compression and infiltration. Compression occurs when the tumor occupies space, pushing against the brain tissue. Infiltration happens when tumor cells directly invade the brain tissue.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Compression's effects on the brain?

Tumors can cause direct damage to brain tissue by compression, or indirectly by blocking cerebrospinal fluid flow leading to hydrocephalus (water brain).

Signup and view all the flashcards

What happens after stroke treatment?

Post-stroke treatment can include reducing swelling with drugs, and therapies like physical, speech, and occupational therapy. Exercise and sensory stimulation can also help.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is constraint-induced movement therapy?

A post-stroke therapy involving forcing the use of a weakened limb, encouraging the brain to rewire and create new pathways for movement.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Glioma

A type of malignant brain tumor that originates from neural stem cells. These tumors are known for their rapid growth and resistance to treatments like chemotherapy and radiation.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Meningioma

A non-malignant brain tumor, often described as 'encapsulated.' It originates from the meninges, the membranes surrounding the brain, and is usually situated between the cerebral hemispheres.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Encephalitis

Inflammation of the brain, often caused by infections, toxins, or allergic reactions. Its primary symptoms include headache, fever, and nausea.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Meningitis

Inflammation of the meninges, the protective membranes around the brain and spinal cord. It is usually caused by viral or bacterial infections. Key symptoms include headache and stiff neck.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Polio

A viral disease that attacks motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord, often leading to paralysis. It's officially known as 'acute anterior poliomyelitis.'

Signup and view all the flashcards

Seizure disorder

A neurological condition characterized by recurrent seizures, which are sudden episodes of abnormal brain activity that can cause a range of symptoms.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Convulsion

A violent sequence of uncontrollable muscle movements caused by a seizure, typically involving the entire body.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Partial (focal) seizure

A seizure that originates in a specific area of the brain and remains localized, affecting only a particular region.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Generalized seizure

A seizure that involves most of the brain, affecting a large area or the entire brain.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Tonic phase

The first phase of a tonic-clonic seizure, characterized by stiffening and rigidity of the muscles, often causing the body to become rigid.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Clonic phase

The second phase of a tonic-clonic seizure, characterized by rhythmic jerking movements of the limbs.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Absence seizure

A brief, generalized seizure characterized by a loss of consciousness, often resembling a brief period of absentmindedness, known as 'petit mal seizure'.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Anticonvulsant Drugs

Medications used to treat seizure disorders by controlling abnormal brain activity. They work by increasing the effectiveness of inhibitory synapses, effectively calming the brain's electrical activity.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Seizure Foci

Specific areas of the brain where abnormal electrical activity starts, triggering seizures. They can be identified and sometimes surgically removed.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

A severe developmental disorder caused by alcohol consumption during pregnancy. It can lead to various physical and cognitive impairments, including facial anomalies, intellectual disability, and behavioral problems.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Inherited Metabolic Disorders

Genetic conditions that disrupt normal brain development due to errors in specific metabolic processes. They often involve a missing or defective enzyme, preventing the body from breaking down essential substances.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

An inherited disorder that prevents the breakdown of the amino acid phenylalanine. Without a special diet, it can lead to brain damage, specifically mental retardation.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Tay-Sachs Disease

A fatal inherited metabolic disorder caused by the lack of an enzyme in lysosomes, resulting in waste buildup in brain cells and significant brain damage.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Down Syndrome

A chromosomal disorder caused by having an extra 21st chromosome. It can cause various physical and cognitive characteristics, including intellectual disability, facial features, and health issues.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

An autoimmune disease where the immune system attacks the myelin sheath, causing damage to the central nervous system.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Demyelination

The process of losing the myelin sheath that protects nerve fibers.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Sclerotic Plaques

Hard patches of debris left behind after the myelin sheath is attacked in MS.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Remitting-Relapsing MS

A type of MS characterized by periods of symptom flare-ups followed by periods of remission.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Progressive MS

A type of MS where symptoms worsen gradually over time, with no periods of remission.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What are neurodegenerative diseases?

Conditions where brain cells progressively die, leading to a decline in mental and physical abilities.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is prion protein disease?

A contagious brain disorder caused by misfolded prion proteins that spread throughout the brain, making it look like a sponge.

Signup and view all the flashcards

How does Huntington's disease work?

A genetic disease where a mutated gene leads to misfolding of the huntingtin protein, causing brain cell death.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is cellular apoptosis?

A programmed cell death process where cells self-destruct, often triggered by misfolded proteins.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What are the effects of protein clumping?

Clumps of misfolded proteins can disrupt normal cell function, leading to various neurodegenerative diseases.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What are the main types of neurodegenerative diseases?

These diseases include Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Huntington's, FTD-ALS, and prion diseases. Each disease has a different cause and affects specific brain regions.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is a spongiform encephalopathy?

Brain degeneration characterized by sponge-like holes due to widespread cell death.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is the role of misfolded proteins?

These proteins can cause other proteins to misfold, spreading the problem throughout the brain and leading to neurodegeneration.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Basal Ganglia in Parkinson's

The globus pallidus and subthalamic nucleus in the basal ganglia become overactive in Parkinson's disease (PD). Damage to these areas or disrupting their activity helps to alleviate symptoms.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is Dementia?

Dementia is a progressive decline in cognitive abilities, including memory, thinking, and behavior due to neurological damage. This impacts daily activities.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive memory loss, motor deficits, and ultimately, death.

Signup and view all the flashcards

-amyloid Plaques

These are clusters of misfolded -amyloid protein found in the brains of Alzheimer's patients. They're surrounded by glial cells and dying neurons.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Neurofibrillary Tangles

These are twisted bundles of Tau protein found inside dying neurons in Alzheimer's disease. Tau normally supports the neuron's structure.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Alzheimer's: APP and Secretase

-amyloid precursor protein (APP) is the protein that gets cut into smaller fragments. Secretase enzymes are involved in this cutting process, including the production of -amyloid.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Presenilin and Alzheimer's

Presenilin is a protein that helps make secretases. Mutations in presenilin can cause it to produce more of the abnormal long form of -amyloid, leading to early onset Alzheimer's.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Lewy Body

A clump of misfolded alpha-synuclein protein found in the cytoplasm of dopamine neurons, commonly associated with Parkinson's disease.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Parkin

A protein crucial for the process of ubiquitination, where faulty proteins are tagged for destruction. A mutated parkin gene can lead to faulty protein accumulation, contributing to Parkinson's disease.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Ubiquitin

A protein that marks faulty or misfolded proteins for destruction by the proteasome.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Proteasome

An organelle in cells responsible for breaking down proteins tagged with ubiquitin.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Toxic Gain of Function

A genetic mutation where a protein becomes harmful, often due to misfolding or being unable to be broken down, leading to disease. Examples: Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Loss of Function

A genetic mutation that disables a gene, resulting in the absence of a vital protein necessary for a healthy function. Example: A mutated parkin gene leads to faulty protein accumulation.

Signup and view all the flashcards

L-Dopa

A precursor to dopamine that can cross the blood-brain barrier. Used to alleviate motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease by increasing dopamine levels in the brain.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)

A treatment for Parkinson's disease where electrodes implanted in the brain deliver electrical signals, controlling abnormal brain activity.

Signup and view all the flashcards

ApoE and Alzheimer's

Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) is a protein that transports cholesterol and plays a role in cellular repair. The presence of the E4 allele of the ApoE gene is a strong risk factor for late-onset Alzheimer's disease.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Alzheimer's Disease Risk Factors

Besides age, the strongest risk factor for Alzheimer's disease is traumatic brain injury. Other risk factors include obesity, hypertension, diabetes, and high cholesterol levels.

Signup and view all the flashcards

ALS-FTD

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig's Disease or motor neuron disease, is a neurodegenerative disorder that attacks motor neurons, leading to muscle weakness and paralysis. Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD) is another neurodegenerative disorder that affects the frontal and temporal lobes. These two are now considered part of the same disease spectrum (FTD-ALS) due to their similarities.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Common Gene Variants and Disease Risk

Many diseases, including Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, heart disease, strokes, and cancer, have a strong genetic component. Common gene variants in the population can increase people's risk for these diseases.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is a Glioma?

A glioma is a malignant brain tumor that originates from neural stem cells. They are known for their rapid growth and resistance to treatment.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is a Meningioma?

A meningioma is a non-malignant brain tumor. It originates from the meninges, the membranes surrounding the brain, and is usually situated between the cerebral hemispheres. They are often described as 'encapsulated.'

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is Encephalitis?

Encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain. It is often caused by infections, toxins, or allergic reactions. Its primary symptoms include headache, fever, and nausea.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is Meningitis?

Meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges, the protective membranes around the brain and spinal cord. It is usually caused by viral or bacterial infections. Key symptoms include headache and stiff neck.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Gene Fixation

When a specific version of a gene (allele) becomes the only version present in (nearly) 100% of the population.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Evolutionary Pressure

The force driving changes in gene frequency due to differences in survival and reproduction rates.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Harmful Alleles

Versions of genes (alleles) that reduce the chances of survival or reproduction.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Beneficial Alleles

Versions of genes (alleles) that increase the chances of survival and reproduction.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Fixation Rate

The speed at which a gene version spreads through a population.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Genetic Basis of Disease

Variations in genes (alleles) can increase the risk of developing certain diseases.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Environmental Changes

Shifts in the surroundings can affect which genes are beneficial or harmful.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Persistence of Harmful Alleles

Harmful gene versions (alleles) can remain common in the population due to rapid environmental changes.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Why are harmful gene variants common?

Despite the theory of evolution and natural selection, harmful gene variants that increase the risk of disease are surprisingly common in the human population. This is because they can be slightly harmful, and their effects may not be severe enough to significantly reduce reproductive success, allowing them to persist across generations.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Alleles and Reproductive Success

Alleles are different versions of a gene. If an allele is very harmful, it's likely to be rare because it significantly lowers reproductive success. If an allele is relatively common, it likely has a less severe effect on reproductive success.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Slightly Harmful Gene Mutations

Gene mutations that have a slightly harmful effect on reproductive success are more likely to persist across generations. This is because their impact is less severe, allowing them to be passed down.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Natural Selection and Harmful Genes

Natural selection eliminates harmful genes from the gene pool. Very harmful genes get eliminated quickly, while slightly harmful genes are eliminated more slowly.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Genetic Variation

Mutations in genes create different versions of a gene, called alleles. These alleles contribute to the diversity of genes in a population.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Reproductive Success and Mental Health

People with severe mental illnesses tend to have a lower fertility rate. This suggests a link between mental health and reproductive success.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Gene Mutations and Alleles

Gene mutations lead to different versions of a gene, called alleles. These alleles are inherited from parents and contribute to genetic diversity.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Estimating the Prevalence of Mental Illness

Researchers estimate that around 4% of the population experiences severe mental illness.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Brain Development Robustness

The brain's ability to withstand various challenges, including genetic mutations, environmental variations, and random molecular fluctuations, while still developing and functioning normally.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Gene Redundancy

Multiple genes with overlapping functions that provide backup in case one gene malfunctions, ensuring proper brain development.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Brain Peculiarities and Mental Illness

People with mental illness tend to have more variations in brain structure and function compared to the general population, but these variations are rarely consistent across individuals with similar diagnoses.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Body Symmetry and Robustness

Symmetrical bodies suggest that genetic instructions are robust and can cope with environmental and molecular variations, making them more resistant to developmental instability.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Gene Variation and Health

Gene variants associated with intelligence, physical attractiveness, and longevity are often linked to good health and development.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Brain Development Stress

While gene mutations can be challenging for the developing brain, the robustness of our genetics allows for variations to exist as long as they aren't too severe.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is developmental instability?

Developmental instability refers to variations in development that occur due to random factors, affecting the symmetry and consistency of an organism's growth.

Signup and view all the flashcards

How does body symmetry correlate with health?

Highly symmetrical bodies, often indicating more robust genetic instructions, are slightly correlated with higher intelligence, physical attractiveness, and physical health.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Schizophrenia Prevalence

The frequency of schizophrenia diagnoses doesn't vary significantly across cultures or historical periods, even though it's clearly heritable.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Schizophrenia and Reproduction

People with severe mental disorders, like schizophrenia, tend to have fewer children than the general population.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Schizophrenia Genes and Fitness

Schizophrenia susceptibility genes are widespread despite potentially reducing reproductive success. This suggests these genes might also have beneficial effects.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Schizophrenia Concordance Rate

Identical twins have a 50% chance of both developing schizophrenia if one twin has it, regardless of whether they were raised together or separated at birth.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Schizophrenia Triggers

While genes play a major role in schizophrenia, environmental factors seem to have a relatively small impact on its development.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Schizophrenia Susceptibility Genes and Advantage?

One theory suggests that certain combinations of schizophrenia susceptibility genes might provide some benefit, perhaps by increasing intelligence.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Schizophrenia and Bad Luck

Schizophrenia often reflects a combination of genetic predisposition and random factors, highlighting the role of chance in its development.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Schizophrenia and Natural Selection

The persistence of schizophrenia despite its negative impact on reproduction is a complex issue, possibly involving the balancing act between harmful and potentially beneficial gene variants.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Mutation-selection balance

A state where harmful mutations are constantly removed by natural selection, but new mutations arise in each generation, leading to ongoing evolution.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Genetic basis of mental illness

Mental illness is not caused by specific gene mutations but rather a combination of genetic variations across the genome that slightly disrupt neural network dynamics.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Gene testing for mental illness

Identifying gene variants conferring an increased risk of mental illness isn't helpful for prevention or treatment, as there are few preventative measures beyond general healthy habits.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Healthy brain habits

Maintaining a healthy brain involves staying active physically and mentally, eating well, reducing stress, getting enough sleep, and limiting alcohol and drugs.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Future directions in mental illness research

Researchers aim to develop new treatments and preventive strategies by identifying gene variants and neural circuit disruptions associated with mental illness.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Gene editing for mental illness

Gene editing techniques could be used in living people or during in vitro fertilization to potentially prevent or treat mental illnesses by targeting specific gene variants.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Mental illness prevalence

The prevalence of mental illness and its persistence across generations reflect the ongoing balance between harmful mutations being eliminated and new mutations arising.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Brain development and function

Half of our genes are expressed in the brain at some point, meaning mutations in these genes can significantly impact brain development and function.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Heritability

The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that's not due to environmental factors or random chance.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Concordance Rates

The likelihood of two individuals sharing a trait, like schizophrenia, based on their genetic relationship.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Environmental Factors in Schizophrenia

Factors like mother's nutrition during pregnancy, stress during pregnancy, infections, birth month, city living, trauma, isolation, and brain damage can contribute to schizophrenia development.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Seasonality Effect

More schizophrenia cases occur in those born in February, March, April, and May.

Signup and view all the flashcards

City Living and Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is more prevalent in those living in large cities compared to rural areas.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Monochorionic vs. Dichorionic Twins

Monochorionic twins share a placenta, having a more similar prenatal environment than dichorionic twins.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Prenatal Environment in Schizophrenia

The prenatal environment plays a crucial role in schizophrenia development, as seen in the higher concordance rate for monochorionic twins compared to dichorionic twins.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Dopamine Hypothesis

The theory that schizophrenia involves an imbalance of dopamine in the brain: too much dopamine in some areas (causing positive symptoms), and not enough in others (causing negative symptoms).

Signup and view all the flashcards

Atypical Antipsychotics

Medications for schizophrenia that aim to reduce both positive and negative symptoms by affecting various neurotransmitter receptors, not just dopamine.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Clozapine

The first atypical antipsychotic, it blocks dopamine D2 and serotonin 2A receptors, among others, to help with both positive and negative symptoms.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Aripiprazole (Abilify/Aristada)

Atypical antipsychotic acting as a partial agonist at dopamine receptors, reducing dopamine activity in the striatum while boosting it in the prefrontal cortex.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Partial Agonist

A drug that binds strongly to a receptor but activates it less than the normal ligand, allowing it to boost receptor activity in areas with low ligand and reduce activity in areas with high ligand.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Hypofrontality

Reduced activity in the frontal lobe, particularly the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, associated with negative symptoms of schizophrenia due to lower D1 receptor activity.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Striatum

A brain region involved in movement and reward. Increased dopamine signaling in the striatum is linked to positive symptoms of schizophrenia.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Prefrontal Cortex (PFC)

The brain's control center for executive functions, planning, working memory, and complex behavior. Reduced activity in the PFC is linked to negative symptoms of schizophrenia.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Schizophrenia Symptoms in Childhood

While schizophrenia typically emerges in adulthood, early signs like less sociability and reduced psychomotor skills may appear in childhood, suggesting developmental origins.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Physical Abnormalities in Schizophrenia

People who go on to develop schizophrenia often exhibit minor physical abnormalities like webbed toes or a high-arched palate, hinting at developmental differences.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia

This theory proposes that excessive dopamine activity, especially in the nucleus accumbens, underlies the positive symptoms of schizophrenia.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Antipsychotic Medications and Schizophrenia

Drugs that block dopamine D2 receptors, called antipsychotics, are the main treatment for schizophrenia, particularly for positive symptoms.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia

These symptoms, including reduced motivation and social interaction, are less responsive to dopamine D2 receptor blockers and may stem from prefrontal cortex dysfunction.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Hypofrontality in Schizophrenia

Negative schizophrenia symptoms might be caused by hypofrontality, decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex, potentially due to low dopamine D1 receptor activity.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Dopamine Receptor Agonists and Schizophrenia

Drugs like cocaine and meth, which stimulate dopamine receptors, can temporarily induce aspects of positive schizophrenia symptoms in people without the disorder.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Treatment of Schizophrenia

There's no cure, but treatment focuses on medication (often antipsychotics) combined with psychological and social support.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Neurodevelopmental Disorders

These disorders are evident in childhood or at birth and are lifelong disabilities. Examples include autism, ADHD, and Tourette's Syndrome.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Sex Differences in Mental Illness

While some mental illnesses affect both sexes equally, others show a clear gender bias. For instance, anxiety disorders are more common in females, while autism is more common in males.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Why Sex Differences?

Possible explanations include underdiagnosis in one sex, perceptual biases, or differing socialization patterns. Women may be better at masking symptoms.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is a Neurodevelopmental Disorder?

A condition that affects brain development and function, leading to lifelong disabilities. Examples include autism, ADHD, and Tourette's syndrome.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is Autism?

A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by social communication difficulties, restricted interests, and repetitive behaviors.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is ADHD?

A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is Tourette's Syndrome?

A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by involuntary tics, both motor and vocal.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What are some examples of neurodevelopmental disorders?

Neurodevelopmental disorders include autism, ADHD, intellectual disability, and motor disorders like Tourette's syndrome.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Sex Differences in Autism

Males are more likely to be diagnosed with autism than females. This is linked to gene variations, especially rare copy number variations (CNVs), which have a much stronger effect on males.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Heterogametic Sex

The sex that has two different sex chromosomes (e.g., XY in mammals, ZW in birds). This sex often shows more variability in traits.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What are CNVs?

Copy number variations (CNVs) are sections of DNA that are either duplicated or missing. They can be inherited or occur 'de novo' (new).

Signup and view all the flashcards

Why More Variability in the Heterogametic Sex?

Having one X chromosome might create developmental instability in the heterogametic sex (e.g., males with XY), leading to greater variability in traits compared to the homogametic sex (e.g., females with XX).

Signup and view all the flashcards

Social & Cultural Stressors

Factors like abuse, poverty, and discrimination can contribute to mental health differences between males and females.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Hormonal Fluctuations

Hormonal changes across a woman's lifespan, especially during puberty, childbirth, and menopause, can influence the incidence and severity of mental health conditions.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Homogametic Sex

The sex that has two of the same sex chromosomes (e.g., XX in mammals, ZZ in birds). This sex often shows less variability in traits.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Autism Heritability

The likelihood that a person will develop autism based on genetics. Studies show that 70-90% of autism is due to inherited factors.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Brain Growth in Autism

Children with autism often have a rapid brain growth spurt during the first few years of life, increasing in volume by up to 10% compared to typical development.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Autism Treatment Goals

The main aims of treatment are to reduce the impact of autism-related challenges, alleviate stress on families, and improve quality of life by increasing independence.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Fusiform Face Area (FFA) in Autism

Brain imaging studies often show reduced activity in the FFA of individuals with autism when they view faces, suggesting a possible difference in how they process facial information.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Early Intervention for Autism

Intensive and long-term educational programs, alongside behavioral therapy, can be very beneficial for young children with autism. These interventions help them learn self-care, communication, and life skills.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Medications for Autism

While medications don't target the core symptoms of autism, they can often help manage associated problems like irritability, inattention, and repetitive behaviors.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Altered Neuronal Migration

One hypothesis for the rapid brain growth in autistic children is that neurons (brain cells) might migrate abnormally during early development, leading to differences in brain structure.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Overconnectivity in Autism

Another theory suggests that certain brain regions in autistic individuals may have excessive connections between neurons, leading to an imbalance in brain activity.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is a mood disorder?

A mental health condition characterized by extreme shifts in mood, ranging from periods of high energy and euphoria to periods of deep sadness and despair. These shifts can interfere with daily life, relationships, and work.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is Bipolar Disorder?

A mood disorder marked by alternating periods of mania (elevated mood, energy, and activity) and depression (low mood, energy, and activity).

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)?

A mood disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest in activities that were once enjoyable. Individuals with MDD may experience changes in sleep, appetite, and energy levels.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is Mania?

A state of intense, elevated mood, energy, and activity. It's characterized by feelings of euphoria, grandiosity, and impulsivity.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is Lithium?

A chemical element commonly prescribed for bipolar disorder. It is most effective in treating the manic phase.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What are anticonvulsant drugs used for?

Some anticonvulsant drugs, particularly voltage-gated sodium channel blockers, are used to stabilize mood in bipolar disorder. They help reduce neural activity.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What are antipsychotics and antidepressants used for in bipolar disorder?

These medications are often used in combination with mood stabilizers to help manage the depressive and manic phases of bipolar disorder.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is the prevalence of bipolar disorder?

Bipolar disorder affects approximately 2% of the population. Genetics play a major role in its occurrence.

Signup and view all the flashcards

How do SSRIs work?

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) increase serotonin levels in the brain by blocking its reabsorption, making more serotonin available for communication between neurons.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is the Monoamine Hypothesis?

The theory suggesting that depression is caused by a deficiency in the neurotransmitters serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Does low serotonin cause depression?

While low serotonin levels are often associated with depression, the relationship is complex. Low serotonin alone doesn't automatically cause depression; other factors are likely involved.

Signup and view all the flashcards

How do SSRIs affect mood?

SSRIs, by increasing serotonin levels in the brain, can take several weeks to show their effects. This is because they need time to adjust the brain's chemistry and improve communication between neurons.

Signup and view all the flashcards

ECT (Electroconvulsive Therapy)

A treatment for severe depression involving controlled electric currents to induce a brief seizure. It works by altering brain activity.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Deep Brain Stimulation

A surgical procedure where electrodes are implanted in specific brain regions to modulate brain activity. Used for severe depression resistant to other treatments.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)?

A non-invasive treatment for depression using magnetic pulses to stimulate specific brain areas. It's a painless, focused approach.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Monoaminergic drugs

Drugs that affect the levels of monoamine neurotransmitters like serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine, often used to treat depression.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Subgenual ACC

A specific area in the anterior cingulate cortex that has shown reduced activity in depressed individuals after successful treatment.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

A procedure used to treat severe depression and bipolar disorder by inducing seizures through electrical shock.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Sleep deprivation

A temporary state of not sleeping, which has been shown to have a short-term antidepressant effect.

Signup and view all the flashcards

REM sleep deprivation

A technique where people are woken up whenever they enter REM sleep, leading to a gradual antidepressant effect over time.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Total sleep deprivation

Staying awake for an entire night can have an immediate, but temporary, mood-boosting effect.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Stage 1 sleep

A light sleep stage that depressed individuals spend more time in.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)?

ECT is a treatment for severe depression and bipolar disorder. It involves inducing seizures by applying electric shocks to the head.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is the role of sleep in depression?

People with depression often experience sleep disturbances, including shallow sleep, frequent awakenings, and less time in deep sleep. They also enter REM sleep early in the night.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is the effect of total sleep deprivation on depression?

Total sleep deprivation can have an immediate antidepressant effect, but it often leads to mania. The antidepressant effect usually disappears after a normal night's sleep.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Stress

Stress refers to the physiological response to aversive or threatening situations. It mobilizes the body for 'fight or flight' through autonomic and endocrine responses.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Chronic Stress

Chronic stress is prolonged and excessive stress that can have negative impacts on health over time.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex?

This brain region is involved in processing emotions. Some studies showed reduced activity in this area after depression lifted, but brain stimulation targeting it was unsuccessful.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What happens after a stroke?

The impact of a stroke depends on the affected brain area. While permanent damage can occur, therapy can improve function. This includes reducing swelling, physical, speech, and occupational therapies.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Gastric Ulcer

A sore in the stomach lining caused by stomach acid eroding the protective layer.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Stress & Immune System

Stress weakens the immune system, slowing down wound healing and increasing susceptibility to infections.

Signup and view all the flashcards

PTSD Symptoms

PTSD includes flashbacks, nightmares, avoidance of trauma triggers, hyperarousal, and negative emotions like hopelessness.

Signup and view all the flashcards

PTSD Prevalence

Although many people experience trauma, only a small percentage develop PTSD. Women are more likely to develop PTSD than men.

Signup and view all the flashcards

PTSD Treatments

Cognitive behavioral therapy, group therapy, and medication (SSRIs) are effective for treating PTSD.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Anxiety Disorders

Characterized by unrealistic and excessive fear and anxiety that significantly impacts daily life.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Tumor Damage

Tumors can damage the brain by compression, pushing against the brain tissue, or by infiltration, directly invading brain cells.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Stroke Effects

The extent of brain damage from a stroke depends on the size of the affected blood vessel. Therapy can help to improve brain function.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

A disorder characterized by excessive anxiety and worry that disrupts daily life.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Social Anxiety Disorder

Excessive fear of social situations where you might be judged, leading to avoidance.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Panic Disorder

Characterized by sudden episodes of intense fear, with symptoms like rapid breathing, heart palpitations, and dizziness.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Anticipatory Anxiety

Fear of having a panic attack, which can worsen anxiety and lead to agoraphobia.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Agoraphobia

Fear of open spaces or situations where escape might be difficult, often stemming from panic disorder.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What are common risk factors for anxiety disorders?

A combination of genetic predisposition and environmental factors like childhood abuse and poverty increase risk.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What are some effective treatments for anxiety disorders?

Lifestyle changes, therapy like CBT, and medication are common treatment approaches.

Signup and view all the flashcards

How does anxiety disorder impact brain function?

While no specific brain circuit disruptions are found, anxiety is often linked to other mental health conditions.

Signup and view all the flashcards

OCD Brain Activity

fMRI studies in OCD patients show heightened activity in the frontal lobes and striatum, key areas for planning and reward.

Signup and view all the flashcards

OCD Treatment

OCD treatment typically involves counseling (CBT), specifically exposure and response prevention. Sometimes antidepressants (SSRIs) are also used.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is Reinforcement Learning?

Reinforcement learning is a type of learning where behaviors are driven by their consequences. Addictive drugs act as positive reinforcers, making the behavior more likely to repeat.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Dopamine and Addiction

All reinforcers, whether natural or drugs, lead to dopamine release in the striatum, particularly the nucleus accumbens. Addictive drugs cause a rapid increase in dopamine signaling.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Immediate vs. Delayed Consequences

Reinforcement is most effective when the consequences of an action are immediate, which explains why some drugs are more addictive than others. For example, heroin's effect is quicker than morphine.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Alcohol Abuse Consequences

Alcohol abuse can lead to significant health problems, including car accidents, liver disease, heart disease, pancreatitis, diabetes, fetal alcohol syndrome, and Korsakoff's syndrome.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Genetic Predisposition to Addiction

Certain gene variants can make individuals more susceptible to addiction, either to a specific drug or to addiction in general. Genes account for 40-60% of alcoholism risk.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Naloxone

A fast-acting medication that reverses the effects of an opioid overdose by blocking opioid receptors.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Methadone

A long-acting opioid used to treat heroin addiction. It helps reduce cravings and withdrawal symptoms, allowing people to live more functional lives.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Buprenorphine

A partial opioid agonist used to treat opioid addiction. It binds to opioid receptors and reduces cravings without causing the same euphoric effects as heroin.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

A non-invasive treatment that uses magnetic pulses to stimulate areas of the brain. It's being studied for various mental conditions, including depression, OCD, smoking, and migraines.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Varenicline

A medication prescribed for nicotine addiction, working by partially stimulating nicotine receptors.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Opioid Receptor Agonist

A substance that binds to opioid receptors in the brain and produces effects similar to opioids.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Opioid Receptor Antagonist

A substance that blocks opioid receptors, preventing opioids from binding and producing their effects.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Tolerance

When a drug effect decreases with repeated use, requiring larger doses to achieve the same effect. This happens due to the body's attempt to counter the drug's actions.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Withdrawal

Symptoms opposite to those caused by the drug when it's suddenly stopped, due to the body's adaptation to the drug's presence.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Physical Dependence

Characterized by tolerance and withdrawal, indicating the body's reliance on a drug, but not the same as addiction.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Negative Reinforcement

A behavior is repeated to avoid an unpleasant experience. In addiction, people may continue using drugs to avoid withdrawal symptoms.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Comorbidity

The co-occurrence of multiple health conditions. Drug addiction is often linked to mental illnesses like schizophrenia and ADHD.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Brain Damage

Various conditions like stroke, tumor, or trauma can damage the brain, affecting its functions. This damage can lead to physical, cognitive, and emotional impairments.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Study Notes

Introduction to Behavioral Neuroscience - PSYC 211

  • Course lecture 18 of 24 covers language (Textbook Chapter 13)
  • Instructor: Jonathan Britt
  • Contact TA: [email protected]

Speech Comprehension

  • Verbal behavior is lateralized in the brain
  • Language disturbances (comprehension and expression) typically occur after damage to the left side of the brain.
  • Left hemisphere is dominant for speech in 90% of the population (94% of right-handed people and 70% of left-handed people)

Prosody: Rhythm, Tone, and Emphasis

  • Human speech has a regular rhythm and cadence
  • People emphasize words to clarify meaning
  • Pitch changes indicate phrasing and distinguish between questions and assertions
  • Prosody (rhythm, emphasis, and tone) conveys emotional state
  • Right hemisphere function for prosody; left hemisphere damage impacts language comprehension, but prosodic cues may still be understood.

Recognition of People's Voices

  • People recognize familiar voices, even newborn infants
  • Voice recognition is independent of word comprehension.
  • People with left-hemisphere brain damage can still often recognize voices even without comprehending language
  • Phonagnosia is a disorder where people struggle to identify voices, resulting from damage to the right cerebral cortex (temporal lobe).

Unfamiliar Metaphors

  • Attempts to understand unfamiliar metaphors strongly activate the right hemisphere
  • Left hemisphere typically needed to understand literal meaning of words
  • Right hemisphere processes metaphorical language

Aphasia

  • Aphasia is a disturbance in understanding, repeating, or producing meaningful speech
  • Difficulty isn't due to simple sensory or motor deficits or lack of motivation
  • Deficit is isolated; the patient recognizes others attempting to communicate and is aware of surroundings
  • Most cases related to left cerebral hemisphere damage.

Middle Cerebral Artery

  • Damage to this artery often leads to aphasia
  • Symptoms depend on the location of cell death

Aphasia Types

  • Damage to the frontal lobe (anterior aphasia, motor aphasia, expressive aphasia, Broca's aphasia, non-fluent aphasia) impacts speaking & writing
  • Damage to sensory association cortex (posterior aphasia, sensory aphasia, receptive aphasia, Wernicke's aphasia, fluent aphasia) affects language understanding.

Types of Aphasia (Diagram)

  • A flowchart displaying different types of aphasia based on fluency, comprehension, and repetition abilities

Word Comprehension

  • Understanding the meaning of "DOG" involves multiple senses (vision, auditory, touch, olfaction, gustatory, motor).

Association Cortex

  • Diagram highlighting different areas of the association cortex responsible for various aspects of comprehending and understanding the word "dog" (e.g., what it looks like, sounds like, feels like, smells like, tastes like, how it acts).

Language Areas

  • Diagram showing the location of key language areas in the brain relative to comprehension and expression tasks for words (including Broca's area, Wernicke's area).

Word Comprehension: Posterior Language Area

  • The posterior language area is critical for language comprehension
  • This area activates neurons throughout sensory association cortices, which store word meanings
  • Specific word activation leads to activity throughout sensory cortices (related to vision, hearing, touch, etc.)

Word Comprehension: Transcortical Sensory Aphasia

  • Damage to the posterior language area results Transcortical Sensory Aphasia
  • Impaired comprehension of words and difficulty expressing thoughts; word repetition may occur but comprehension is limited
  • Reading, writing without understanding.

Receptive Fluent Aphasia (Wernicke's Aphasia)

  • Audiovisual comprehension difficulty (e.g., inability to understand verbally presented words);
  • Unfettered fluency with little meaning.

Byron's Road to Recovery

  • Overview of a patient’s experience recovering from Wernicke’s aphasia; early improvement prognosis is not accurate; significant progress is possible

Language Perception Areas: Posterior Language Area

  • Diagram illustrating how language areas connect to the Posterior Language Area

Language Perception Areas: Broca's Area

  • Diagram showcasing how different language areas directly connect to Broca's area

Types of Aphasia (Diagram)

  • A second diagram illustrating different types of aphasia based on fluency, comprehension, and repetition.

Conduction Aphasia

  • Characterized by inability to repeat words
  • Comprehension and fluent speech are otherwise fine
  • Damage to arcuate fasciculus which connects Wernicke's and Broca's area.

Wernicke's Area

  • Sound recognition as spoken words, situated in the left temporal lobe of auditory association cortex
  • Key difference between hearing a sound and recognizing it as word (primary auditory cortex vs. Wernicke's Area)
  • Understanding word meaning is another stage (Posterior Language Area)

Pure Word Deafness

  • Inability to understand or repeat spoken words, even if other auditory functions intact
  • Often caused by damage to Wernicke's area

Pure Word Deafness

  • People can still hear fine (generally), respond to non-speech sounds (like a doorbell, phone) and read/write.
  • They struggle to understand speech and can't repeat or recognize words; some difficulty speaking.

Wernicke's Aphasia

  • Damage around Wernicke’s and Posterior language area
  • Combination of transcortical sensory aphasia & pure word deafness
  • Difficulty comprehending language; speak fluently but words/sentences lack meaning
  • Prosody (intonation/emphasis) is often present, but speech conveys little meaning.
  • Spoken word recognition and understanding abilities are interwoven within Wernicke's area.

Receptive Fluent Aphasia (Wernicke's Aphasia)

  • Clarifying the key difference between pure word deafness and more extensive Wernicke's aphasia.

Disorders of Reading

  • Diagram illustrating comprehension and written word perception.

Pure Alexia

  • Damage to visual word-form area (VWFA)
  • Inability to recognize written words, but still able to perform other tasks (e.g., write)
  • Visual word form area is located in the fusiform gyrus of the left hemisphere (with face perception being more dominant in the right hemisphere).

Reading

  • Different types of reading impairments are explained and the brain regions involved are noted (e.g., visual w-f-a related to difficulties reading words).
  • Whole-word vs. phonetic reading pathways discussed
  • Different dyslexia types are characterized (Surface Dyslexia, Phonological Dyslexia), describing associated issues and brain regions involved
  • Overview of neural basis for dyslexia.

Sight Reading

  • Discuss how the visual word form area is crucial for reading and differentiating written words.

Reading (Diagram)

  • A model illustrating the different stages of reading comprehension and associated factors.

Selective Disorders of Reading

  • Stroke patients can have narrow reading impairments (Direct Dyslexia), even if other tasks like speaking are fine, signifying specific damage to visual word perception areas.

Reading

  • Key perceptual cues related to recognizing objects are discussed.

Types of Aphasia (Diagram)

  • A final diagram summarizing different types of aphasia.

Speech Production: Broca's Area

  • Role of Broca's area in speech production.

Speech Production

  • Damage to Broca's area in the left inferior frontal lobe causes difficulties in verbal expression, leading to slow, labored, non-fluent speech and frustration.

Broca's Aphasia

  • Broca's aphasia encompasses articulation problems, agrammatism, and anomia.
  • Articulation struggles relate to tongue, lip, jaw, and other speech organ movement (e.g., sequencing issues like lipstick → lickstip)
  • Agrammatism relates to difficulty with grammatical devices (e.g., verb endings and word order); largely using content words (nouns, verbs) without function words (e.g., a, the).
  • Anomia is the difficulty in finding appropriate words.

Agrammatism

  • Difficulty comprehending and utilizing grammatical structures (e.g., verb endings, sentence order—man bit dog—).
  • Focus on understanding/comprehending speech.
  • Content words are used frequently, but function words (article, preposition, etc.) are sparse.

Speech Production and Comprehension

  • Distinction between content words (nouns, verbs, etc.) and function words (prepositions, articles) and their importance for meaning and grammar structure, specifically relating to Broca's Aphasia.

Anomic Aphasia

  • Difficulty finding the correct word to describe an object, action, or attribute.
  • Often seen with Broca's Aphasia.
  • While people with Anomic Aphasia usually understand what's being said, they have a hard time generating the words.
  • Circumlocution is one strategies used to express oneself.

Studying That Suits You

Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.

Quiz Team

Related Documents

Introduction To Behavioral Neuroscience Lecture 21 - PDF
Lecture 19 - Emotions (1) PDF
Lecture 18 - Language PDF
Introduction to Behavioral Neuroscience - PSYC 211 Lecture PDF
Introduction to Behavioral Neuroscience: PSYC 211 Lecture PDF
Introduction to Behavioral Neuroscience - PSYC 211 Lecture Notes PDF
Introduction to Behavioral Neuroscience Lecture Notes PDF

Description

Test your knowledge on various types of aphasia and dyslexia, including their neurological underpinnings and the effects of brain damage. This quiz covers important concepts such as auditory comprehension, reading processes, and the characteristics of phonological dyslexia. Suitable for students of psychology and neuroscience, this quiz will enhance your understanding of language processing disorders.

More Like This

Use Quizgecko on...
Browser
Open
Browser
Browser