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Questions and Answers
What is the process called when temperature remains constant but pressure decreases, leading to the melting of rocks?
What is the process called when temperature remains constant but pressure decreases, leading to the melting of rocks?
Which of the following is NOT a main source of heat on Earth?
Which of the following is NOT a main source of heat on Earth?
Which type of eruption is characterized by the flow of lava along with the formation of lakes and fountains?
Which type of eruption is characterized by the flow of lava along with the formation of lakes and fountains?
What is described as the process where a rock changes its form into a new one without melting?
What is described as the process where a rock changes its form into a new one without melting?
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In which scenario does heat transfer melting typically occur?
In which scenario does heat transfer melting typically occur?
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What type of melting is triggered by the addition of volatiles or gaseous substances to solid rocks?
What type of melting is triggered by the addition of volatiles or gaseous substances to solid rocks?
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Which metamorphic process involves the transformation of one mineral to another?
Which metamorphic process involves the transformation of one mineral to another?
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What is the process called when new minerals grow that differ from the original rock after metamorphism?
What is the process called when new minerals grow that differ from the original rock after metamorphism?
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Study Notes
Endogenic Processes
- Endogenic processes are geological processes driven by energy originating within the Earth's interior.
Main Sources of Heat on Earth
- Heat from Earth's formation (accretion).
- Frictional heating from sinking core materials.
- Heat from radioactive element decay.
Magmatism
- Magma is molten rock found beneath Earth's surface.
- Lava is magma that reaches the surface.
Factors Affecting Magma Formation
- Temperature increases with depth.
- Pressure increases with depth.
- Water content decreases melting point.
- Mineral composition: different minerals have different melting points.
Magma Generation
- Decompression Melting: Occurs when pressure decreases while temperature remains the same, common at divergent plate boundaries (plates moving apart).
- Flux Melting: Occurs when volatiles (gaseous substances) are added to hot solid rock, common at convergent plate boundaries (plates colliding).
- Heat Transfer Melting: Occurs when very hot magma heats surrounding rock, common in ridges, rift valleys, hotspots, and subduction zones.
- Partial Melting: Only certain minerals melt when rocks begin to melt.
Volcanism
- Volcanoes are visible manifestations of rock formation processes.
- Volcanoes have different types, including composite (stratovolcano), cinder cone, and shield volcanoes.
Eruptions
- Effusive eruption is dominated by lava flow.
- Explosive eruption ejects ash and pyroclastic materials.
Metamorphism
- Metamorphism is the process where a rock changes its form without melting or disintegration.
Metamorphism Processes
- Recrystallization: Changes in mineral shape and size without changing density.
- Phase Change: Transformation of one mineral into another.
- Neocrystallization: Formation of new minerals different from the original rock.
- Pressure Solution: Dissolution of mineral grains due to pressure in one direction, low temperature, and water.
- Plastic Deformation: Flattening or elongation of minerals without compositional change.
Causes of Metamorphism
- Heat
- Pressure
- Hydrothermal solutions (hot water-based solutions escaping from magma)
Protolith
- Protolith is the original rock that is subjected to metamorphism.
- Protoliths can be igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks.
Examples of Metamorphic Rocks
- Examples of metamorphic rocks include slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss, marble, quartzite, and anthracite. Each rock type is associated with different parent rocks, textures, and grain sizes
Types of Metamorphism
- Shock metamorphism
- Regional metamorphism
- High-pressure metamorphism
- Burial metamorphism
- Contact metamorphism
- Regional metamorphism (sometimes this is shown as separate from high-pressure, but both could occur)
- Oceanic metamorphism
Deformation
- Tectonic forces inside the Earth cause rocks to deform.
- Stress causes rocks to deform.
- Kinds of stress
- Tensional: Dominant force pulling rocks away from each other.
- Compressional: Dominant force pushing rocks towards each other.
- Shear: Dominant forces slide past one another (not directly towards each other like compression).
- Strain is the resulting change in rocks due to different types of stress.
Three Stages of Deformation
- Elastic Deformation: Reversible strain.
- Ductile Deformation: Irreversible strain.
- Permanent Stage: Reaches elastic limit.
Structures Produced by Deformation
- Joints: Natural cracks in rocks from brittle deformation.
- Faults: Planar structures with sliding between rock layers from brittle deformation.
- Types of faults include: normal, reverse, thrust, and strike-slip faults.
- Types of movement include divergent, convergent, and transform plate boundaries.
- Folds: Contortions in rock layers forming wave-like curves (formed from ductile deformation).
- Types of folds include monocline, anticline, syncline, overturned anticline, and overturned syncline.
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