AP Psychology Learning Concepts

Learning Definitions and Concepts

• Learning is defined as a lasting change in behavior or mental processes resulting from experience.
• Classical conditioning involves involuntary responses that are associated with stimuli.
• Operant conditioning involves voluntary behavior that is influenced by rewards or punishments.
• Social learning (observational learning) occurs when individuals learn by watching others.

Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps

• Edward Tolman conducted experiments with rats in mazes to illustrate latent learning.
• Latent learning occurs without rewards, demonstrating the ability to learn and retain information passively.
• Cognitive maps refer to internal mental representations of one's physical environment, which help in navigation.

Classical Conditioning Principles

• Classical conditioning was pioneered by Ivan Pavlov, who observed dogs salivating before food was presented.
• Neutral Stimulus (NS) is any stimulus that does not evoke a conditioned response before learning (e.g., a ringing bell).
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) naturally elicits a response without prior learning, such as food causing salivation (UCR).
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with the UCS, elicits a conditioned response.
• Conditioned Response (CR) is the learned response to the conditioned stimulus (e.g., salivating at the sound of a bell).

Efficiency of Classical Conditioning

• Classical conditioning is most effective when the conditioned stimulus precedes the unconditioned stimulus closely in time.

Cognitive Processes in Classical Conditioning

• Contemporary interpretations of classical conditioning consider cognitive factors, like expectancy and awareness of relationships between stimuli.

Biological Influences on Learning

• Some species are biologically predisposed to form certain associations that aid in survival, such as developing taste aversion.

Higher-Order Conditioning

• Higher-order conditioning occurs when a previously conditioned stimulus is associated with a new unconditioned stimulus, leading to a new conditioned response.

Key Behavioral Concepts

• Spontaneous Recovery is the reoccurrence of an extinguished conditioned response after a time lapse.
• Stimulus Generalization refers to the tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to evoke the conditioned response.
• Stimulus Discrimination involves differentiating between similar stimuli, leading to distinct responses.
• Extinction happens when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, weakening the conditioned behavior.
• Shaping is the process of reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior.
• Habituation is a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure.