AP European History: The Italian Renaissance

• Study guide for AP European History, covering periods from the Renaissance to contemporary Europe.

Period 1: Renaissance & Exploration (c. 1450-1648)

The Italian Renaissance (Topic 1.2)

• The Renaissance was a European movement sparked by rediscovering classical texts from Ancient Greece and Rome.
• Crusaders' travels to the Middle East, where knowledge was preserved, enabled the Renaissance.
• Originating in Italy, the Renaissance initially attracted smart, elite individuals.
• Petrarch is considered the "Father of the Renaissance".
• Petrarch created Humanism, a philosophy focusing on the unlimited potential of humans as an end in itself.
• Cicero inspired Petrarch.
• Petrarch laid the foundation for secularism and individualism.
• Initially exclusive to the elite, Renaissance ideas spread rapidly with the invention of the printing press.
• Education became more secular, covering rhetoric, grammar, logic, history, and moral philosophy.
• Niccolo Machiavelli's "The Prince" suggests a ruler must preserve power at all costs, ensure order and stability.
• Human beings can be intensely selfish and a ruler may need to be brutal.
• Renaissance artists emphasized naturalism, portraying the world as it was, unlike symbolic figures and flatness in Middle Ages art.
• Geometric Perspective was a new painting technique.

The Northern Renaissance (Topic 1.3)

• Printing press facilitated the spread of new ideas and thoughts to the North.
• Thinkers maintained a more religious, specifically Christian, framework.
• Synthesized humanistic thought with Christian traditions, seeking a simpler, purer form of Christianity.
• Christian Humanism led to an impulse for reform.
• Erasmus, in "In Praise of Folly," undermined political and social institutions and criticized the corrupt aspects of religious hierarchies.

Printing (Topic 1.4)

• Ideas of Erasmus spread wider than Petrarch due to the printing press.
• Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press around 1450.
• Printing became cheaper, ideas spread rapidly, literacy rates increased, and there was more demand for vernacular literature.

New Monarchies (Topic 1.5)

• Characterized by the rise of New Monarchies/Monarchs.
• Monarchs gained more power by consolidating it and diminishing the authority of the church and nobility.

Top Down Religious Reform

• Henry VIII was initially a "Defender of Faith" then became the Head of the Church of England after being denied a divorce.
• The Treason Act made it illegal for citizens not to recognize the Church of England as the official church.
• Elizabeth I's Act of Uniformity required citizens to attend Church of England services or pay a fine.
• Monarchs established bureaucracies for governance.
• Ferdinand and Isabella consolidated power by creating national taxes on property sales and a bureaucracy for collecting taxes and deciding justice.
• The Concordat of Bologna (1516) was an agreement between King Francis I of France and Pope Leo X.
• The Pope could collect income from the French Catholic church, while Francis appointed church officials, restricting their direct communication with the Pope.
• The Peace of Augsburg (1555) allowed rulers in the HRE to decide whether their subjects would be Catholic or Lutheran.
• Commercial and professional groups, along with merchants and bankers, gained power.
• The Medici Family had a banking system in Italy.
• The Fugger Family had a banking system in Augsburg.
• Banking fostered close alliances between families and monarchs, increasing bankers' political power.
• Secular states emerged implying the church having little to no political influence.

Technological Advances and the Age of Exploration (Topic 1.6)

• Motivations for European Expansion included Gold, God, and Glory.

Gold

• A key motivation was mercantilism viewing the world's wealth as finite.
• There was a need to get as much gold and silver, exporting more than importing.
• Colonies were established to obtain gold and natural resources.
• Colbert, a French figure, loved mercantilism and raised tariffs on non-French goods.

God

• Spreading Christianity was a goal.
• There was a desire to see Catholicism ascendent over Protestantism after the Protestant Reformation.
• Jesuit missionaries were sent to convert indigenous people.

Glory

• European states competed with each other.
• Maritime Empires arose due to new technology like advances in cartography, new kinds of ships(caravel), use of the lateen sail, the magnetic compass and astrolabe.

Rivals on the World Stage (Topic 1.7)

• Maritime Empires, included Portugal wanting access to Asian spices/markets.
• Prince Henry the Navigator, Portuguese ships sailed around the tip of Africa.
• The Portuguese established trading posts.
• They dominated Indian Ocean trade.
• Spain commissioned Christopher Columbus to sail to India, but he ended up in the New World.
• Smallpox and other diseases wiped out indigenous populations
• Atlantic Nations, including France, England, and the Netherlands, also got involved.
• The French were into trade, making alliances without establishing colonies.
• England established colonies and sent people to live there.
• The Dutch were into trade and competed with the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean.
• The main tension was between Spain and Portugal, resulting in the Treaty of Tordesillas via the Papal Line of Demarcation.

Colonial Expansion and Columbian Exchange (Topic 1.8)

• The Columbian Exchange refers to the global transfer of goods, flora, fauna, cultural practices, and diseases between the Old World and the New World due to European imperialism.
• Economic effects include economic power shifting from Mediterranean to Atlantic city-states.
• Antwerp grew significantly as a major trading cite.
• The Spanish imposed the casta and encomienda systems.

The Slave Trade (Topic 1.9)

• The causes include the establishment of plantation economies in the New World, mercantilism, and cash crops like sugar and coffee.

The Commercial Revolution (Topic 1.10)

• The Commercial Revolution was the shift to money becoming the most desirable commodity instead of land.
• Europe shifted towards a money economy.
• Instead of bartering, a money economy allowed exchange of money for goods and services.
• Double-entry bookkeeping emerged as huge amounts of money were flowing through the economy.
• Joint Stock Companies like VOC increased.
• The influx of silver from Potosi led to the Price Revolution with prices steadily increasing for about a century and a half, starting in Spain and affecting much of Europe.
• The Two Field System changed to the Three Field System, and innovation in agriculture increased.
• Large landowners and capitalist investors saw open-field systems as wasteful.
• They desired to increase available land so that crop yields could increase, leading to the Enclosure Movement.
• Private land ownership started a shift towards capitalism.
• Agriculture became a way to make money, not just survive.
• Effects include a new economic elite, with the Nobles of the Robe in France buying their way into nobility.
• There was increasing freedom for serfs, mainly in Western Europe.
• Urban migration and urban poverty occurred.
• Family patterns changed as women married and had children later in life.

Period 2: Age of Reformation (c. 1450 - 1648)

Luther and The Protestant Reformation (Topic 2.2 + 2.3)

• In the high Middle Ages, there were bitter disputes between Roman Catholic Popes and European kings, notably the King of France.
• Most people felt that popes were more interested in maintaining political power rather than acting as spiritual leaders.
• Corrupt Practices emerged like Simony which is the buying & selling of church offices.
• Nepotism increased.
• Indulgences were offered by Pope Leo X to Catholics to help finance the completion of St. Peter's Basilica.
• Martin Luther believed in the Priesthood of all Believers after seeing the corruption in the church and this becamne attractive to people.
• Sola Scriptura meant the final authority for Christians was from the Bible, not the Pope.
• Luther posted 95 Theses which outlined church corrupt practices.
• He became popular due to the printing press and was ruled as a heretic and placed on trial at the Diet of Worms.
• The Reformation Spread to John Calvin in Switzerland.
• Calvin systematized Protestant doctrine in "Institutes of the Christian Religion".
• Predestination and Elect were two of Calvin's most distinct ideas.
• The Anabaptists separated from Luther and Calvin on the question of baptism.
• Previous Reformers like Jan Hus tried to highlight the corruption in the Catholic Church.
• None would have the extensive impact as Martin Luther. The reformation spread thanks to the printing press.
• Luther called for the Bible to be translated into German (vernacular).
• It challenged the authority of Catholic Church and increased literacy rates in Europe.

Wars of Religion (Topic 2.4)

• In France, most people were Catholic in the early 1500s, but by the 1560s, Protestantism had spread and gained a strong foothold.
• Catherine de Medici wanted to purge France of non-Catholics.
• Wars officially started in 1562 with the Massacre of Vassy.
• Protestants were attacked at service by a Duke of the Catholic Guise family.
• The St. Bartholomew Day Massacre Under the influence of Catherine de Medici, Charles the 9th ordered the massacre of Protestants at Henry of Navarre's wedding.
• In the War of Three Henrys, Henry of Navarre became the de facto leader of France.
• The Edict of Nantes officially established France as a Catholic state but provided Hugenots the freedom to worship without fearing being massacred or otherwise harassed.
• Spain was controlled by the Hapsburgs (Catholic) and felt pressure from the Ottomans.
• Spain sent the Spanish Armada in response to England's support of Dutch Protestants (Spain lost).
• The Thirty Years War occurred in the HRE.
• The Peace of Augsburg had offered some degree of religious toleration in the HRE by decreeing that the Princes of the territories could decide whether their subjects would be Catholic or Protestant (Lutheran).
• Many Calvinists refused this, leading to the Defenestration of Prague which launched the beginning of this war.
• Protestants threw Ferdinand's messengers out a window in response of efforts by Ferdinand to increase Catholicism in Bohemia.
• Catholics gained the upper hand in many parts of the HRE during the Bohemian Phase (Phase 1).
• King Christian IV of Denmark took up the Protestant cause.
• He was involved in an anti-Catholic, anti-Hapsburg alliance with England, starting the Danish Phase (Phase 2).
• The war began to extend beyone the borders of the HRE and King of Sweden organized the Protestant cause and armies who scored a major victory for the Protestants.
• The King received financial support from the French making the war turn to a more political war, the Swedish Phase (Phase 3).
• France entered the war, fought mainly against Spain, to ensure Spain couldn't rebound, French Phase (Phase 4).
• The Peace of Westphalia marked an end of religious wars in Europe.
• The Peace of Augsburg was amended to include Calvinism.
• The medieval idea of a universal Christendom ended.
• The HRE emperor was kept weak and rulers of individual states were strong.

The Catholic Reformation (Topic 2.5)

• Catholics began rethinking things in response to the Protestant Reformation.
• The Jesuit Order's purpose was to educate the Church and create the Index of Prohibited Books.
• The Council of Trent aimed to resolve the differences between the Protestants and Catholics.
• It suppressed the practice of simony, reestablished the celibacy of the priesthood, and cleaned up the sale of indulgences.

16th-Century Society and Politics (Topic 2.6)

• With the rise of the merchant elite, some of whom became very wealthy, class movement upward was possible.
• Land ownership remained the dominant form of capital.
• Jews were often expelled from many countries.
• Patriarchy was the norm (male-dominated society).
• In rural households, men and women were more equal with separate spheres of work and certain roles they each fulfilled.
• The Woman Question emerged as an argument between the nature of women and their place in society.
• City governments were tasked with creating laws to regulate public morals, previously the domain of the church.
• New forms of leisure included boxing and jousting.
• All Saints Day became popular.
• Protestants and Catholics agreed that witchcraft was evidence of a pact with the devil and should be feared and extinguished.

Art (Mannerism + Baroque) (Topic 2.7)

• The Rise of Mannerism
• Chief philosophy was Humanism
• The Protestant Reformation led to a revival of religious fervor and hence a new philosphy, Mannerism.
• Mannerism made use of distorted figures and violated the rules of proportion in order to express intense suffering and emotion.
• Baroque replaced Mannerism, attempting to merge the classical ideals of the Renaissance with the rising religious affections of the age.
• It was extravagant in form, ornate and detailed, highly emotional, and dramatic.
• The Catholic Church embraced this art and commissioned art from Baroque artists.

Period 3: Absolutism and Constitutionalism (c. 1648 - 1815)

The English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution (Topic 3.2)

• Many European monarchies were moving towards Absolutism where the moarch held all power.
• However, not in England
• No English monarch could rule absolutely because that monarch was required to share power with the English Parliament, which was a legislative body that represented the interests of the English people.

Main Causes

• Divine Right of Kings:
  • Just as god had granted spiritual authority to the Church, he simultaneously granted political authority to the King
  • Charles I seized land without Parliament approval.
• Thirty Years' War:
  • Debt accrued from England's participation.
  • Charles I spent money that wasn't authorized by the Parliament and didn't call in Parliament.
• The Anglican Church:
  • Henry VIII had established the Protestant Church of England was done in defiance of the Catholic Church.
  • Puritans wanted to purify the Church of England

The English Civil War

• The war was a conflict between the King, Parliament, and other elites over their resepctive roles in the political structure.
• It determined whether England will be ruled by an absolute monarchy of exist as a constitutional monarchy
• Charles fled Northern England and raised an army of elites.
• Parliament assembled the New Model Army.
• The New Model Army was victorious.
• Oliver Cromwell captured the King, removed members of Parliament and beheaded Charles I for treason,
• England became a true republic called the Protectorate.
• Ruled by Oliver Cromwell and after the war, England was ruled as a military dictatorship.

Restoration Period

• Appointed many monarchs but Parliament was fed up by bad candidates who often seemed corrupt and deceiving.
• The throne was given to Mary and William of Orange in what was known as the Glorious Revolution as there was no bloodshed
• With the ascension of William and Mary, the idea of divine right of kings was officially put to the death.
• They composed of the English Bill of Rights which was a condition of William and Mary accepting the throne.

Economic Changes and Continuities (Topic 3.3)

• The Agricultural Revolution replaced conventional ideals of farming like the two and three field system.
• Seed drill and Mechanical How were new innovations in agriculture.
• Many different kinds of beans came into Europe and most significantly the potato.
• It increased food production.
• People didn't have a lot of work leading to the Transformation of the Rural Industry.
• With fewer and fewer people needed for farming, rural households needed to supplement their earnings with Cottage Industry.
• The Cottage Industry would directly compete with guilds
• The Rise of the Market Economy occurred.
• Britain increased its wool production and the money economy grew.
• Adam Smith published "Wealth of Nations" in 1776.
• New Financial Systems included Insurance for increased confidence, banks and venture capital.

Mercantilism (Topic 3.4)

• Mercantilism is a state-driven economic system emphasizing the buildup of mineral wealth by means of a favorable balance of trade.
• Mercantilism and Empire gave Europe a dominant figure in the world.
• One of the main drivers was the expansion of empire and the robust trade that occurred because of it
• Raw materials were used to provided new markets to sell manufactured goods for Europe.
• Navigation Acts controlled trade.
• There was increased demand for New World products like sugar, rice, and cotton due to the effects of Mercantilism.
• A new consumer culture and demand for labor (African Americans) rose.

Dutch Golden Age (Topic 3.5)

• After the Thirty Years War and the Peace of Westphalia, the Dutch gained independence from the Spanish.
• They favored a Constituionalism which opted for a republican government in which the power was in the hands of the people
• In the Dutch Republic, regions were divided into estates which were ruled by an oligarchy.
• Dutch Dominance in Trade made the Dutch Wealthiest European state with heav investment in shipbuilding.
• The Dutch also had the highest standard of living.

Absolutist Approaches to Power (Topic 3.7)

Absolute Monarchs in England and Spain

• Absolutism transferred power from the nobility and church to the monarch.
• Weakened the influence of the Catholic Church and the Rise of Protestantism.
• Merchant classes desired absolute monarchs for economic and political stability.
• By creating bureacuracies, absolute power weakened the nobility.

Examples

• James I (England) believed in the the divine right of kings.
• Phillip II (Spain) wanted to unite Iberian Peninsula however, the failure in the Netherlands and the failure of the Spanish Armada weakened the Spanish state.

Absolutism in France

• Louis XIV was known as "I am the state"
• Was Impacted by the Fronde as a child
• Responded to the autocratic measures of French financial minister Mazarin

How Louis XIV Gained Power

1. Intendant System: Sent intendants to all districts of France to act as an extension of Louis
2. Palace of Versailles: Mandated nobles to live part of the year at Versailles
3. Imposed Religious Uniformity: Revoked the Edict of Nantes (In response, many Hugenots fled France and economically disadvantaged France)
4. Wars of Expansion
   • Colbert designed the economy around mercantilism. This had the effect of decreasing France's debt, breathed new life into domestic industries, expanded France's colonial holdings, and created a favorable balance of trade

Absolute Monarchs in Russia

• Peter the Great (1682) westernized Russia, required nobles to serve in the army or government, shave their beards and wear Western clothing.
• Peter populated the Russian Orthodox Church with obedient officials and ministers

Period 4: Scientific, Philosophical, and Political Developments (c. 1648-1815)

The Scientific Revolution (Topic 4.2)

• Aristotle thought that the Earth was at the center.
• Causes of the Scientific Revolution: Universities, Renaissance, wealthy patronage of the natural world and the printing press.
• Copernicus introduced the heliocentic theory that placed the Sun at the center of the solar system, which challenged the geocentric theory.
• Kepler introduced Three laws of planetary motion.
• Galileo used the telescope to confirm observations and new theories.
• Law of Universal Gravitation discovered by Isaac Newton.
• Old ideas of Galen regarding the composition of the body were rejected in Medicine and Anatomy.
• Francis Bacon promoted empiricism and empirical evidence as was of reasoning.
• Descartes believed in Deductive reasoning.
• Many revolutionaries were not 100% scientific and objective and remained religious and fatalistic.

The Englightenment (Topic 4.3)

• The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that applied new methods of rational thinking and the scientific method to social and human institutions.
• Emphases included methods of scientific ideology and using the scientific method to discover the laws of society.
• Enlightenment thought could lead to progress in the human sphere.

The French Philosophers

• Montesquieu pushed for Separation of powers.
• Voltaire thought Absolutism should be put down by Enlightenment thought.
• Diderot published the Encyclopedia.
• Ideas spread in salons in France and coffeehouses.
• John Locke promoted natural rights.
• Rousseau advocated for a social contract.
• Mary Wollstonecraft, Vindication of the Right of Women
• Enlightened Economics: Adam Smith Wealth of Nations attacked mercantilist policies and people should be allowed to make economic decisions as well as the Physiocrats - Laissez - Faire economics
• Rationalism and Religion: Deism Skepticism Religious movements emphasized personal piety and individual relationships to God

18th-Century Society and Demographics (Topic 4.4)

• The Population of Europe was expanding, due to a decrease in death rate, abundance of food, improved transport and storage, and longer life expectancies.
• Crop yields increased significantly.
• Childhood became essential to life, education was promoted, nuclear families grew, and men/women married later as a result of Changes in Food Supply.
• Many rural families migrated to the cities leading to new tenement housing and urban poverty.

18th- Century Culture and Arts (Topic 4.5)

• The Consumer Revolution increased demand for cheap consumer goods
• The middle class could purchase goods previously reserved for the upper class.
• A new concern for privacy meant Houses with private rooms.
• New venues for leisure activities as well as the rise of spectator sports occured.
• The Reading Revolution saw literacy rates continue to spread.
• New efforts to educate children and more printed materials increased literacy rates in Europe, but Censorship by the Catholic Church increased.
• There was a reduced shift away from religious themes and royal power and more emphasis on private life and the public good during the Revolution in the Arts.
• shift to themes that appealed to bourgeois society.

Enlightened and Other Approaches to Power (Topic 4.6)

• New rulers known as Enlightened Absolutists aimed to temper the exercise the power by Enlightenment ideals while retaining absolute power.
• Frederick the Great (Prussia) expanded his territory and power, and after losing territory, Frederick would consider a new kind of rule tempered by more human policies informed by Enlightenment thought.
• He enacted religious toleration policies and Legal reforms, and He saw himself as "I am the first servant of the state".
• Cameralism was the belief that the state had the obligation to use its power to help its people
• Catherine the Great (Russia), wife of Peter III whom she murdered, Westernized Russia, led Legal reform, territorial expansion (Poland), but Increased serf oppression.
• Joseph II (Austria) signed the edict of toleration, increased freedom of the press, and Put strictures on the Catholic Church.
• Significant oppression and marginalization of Jews occured with Catherine and Frederick.

Period 5: Conflict, Crisis, and Reaction in the Late 18th Century (c. 1648-1815)

The Rise of Global Markets (Topic 5.2)

• A globalized economy accelerated and led to conflict as maritime powers vied for dominance.
• In the East, VOC (Dutch) was the first transnational corporation and the most profitable in history.
• The EIC directly competed with VOC and France created the French East India Trading Company.
• The Dutch Republic became the dominant maritime trade power in the Atlantic.
• The Navigation Acts guaranteed a monopoly for British merchants and made them fabulously wealthy.
• This weakened the Dutch dominance and marked how the British were growing powerful.

Britain's Ascendancy (Topic 5.3)

• The War for Spanish Succession marked the end of the Spanish Empire.
• The Treaty of Utrecht made France give up their colonial holdings and Britain gained much power.
• The Seven Years War was the first global war.
• Britain and England would fight over India, and the British would rule victorious.
• The French and Indian War saw the British Win, and gained a ton of territory from France's colonial holdings.
• The colonists were given support by the French during the American Revolution.
• Despite Britain’s loss, they still remained a dominant figure.

The French Revolution (Topic 5.4+5.5)

• Causes:
  • The third estate paid all the taxes and there was an ongoing famine
  • France was in severe debt
  • The third estate wanted more representation.
• Phases:
  • Liberal/Moderate: Abolished privileges of nobility and Rights of Man and Citizen
  • Radical Phase: Started with the beheading of the Louis XVI and headed by Robespierre which led to france fighting against Prussia and Austria using mass conscription.
• Women's involvement included the Declaration of the Rights of Women and Citizen.
• Overall, the French Revolution was inspired by the Enlightenment and its ideals.
• Reactions to the French Revolution:
  • Conservative Reaction: blamed the ideals of the Enlightenment for the French Revolution.
  • Edmund Burke wrote Reflections on the Revolution in France cautioning the British people against the excesses of the French Revolution.

Napoleon (Topic 5.6)

• Fraance was chaotic and people wanted to see all this come to an end, leading Napoleon to led a coup to name himself first Consulate
• Crowned himself Emperor Napoleon because People saw a sign of normalcy returning
• Napoleon's Domestic Reforms: Instituting the Napoleonic Code reasserted the equity of all citizens before the law, Issued protections for wealth and private property and introduced a degree of religious toleration to France.
• Centralizing the government and bureacracy: Established a meritocracy and Abolished privileges of nobility
• Religious reform that came in the Concordat of Bologna in 1801 gave freedoms to French Catholics
• Napoleon's Dominance came with Supression of the People - established a secret police and marginalization of women and censorship existed.
• Conquered much of Europe in the Napoleonic Wars and by 1810, Napoleon saw himself not as the emperor of France but as the Emperor of Europe
• Cotinental System Prohibited Great Britain ships from docking at any port controlled by the French with the intention of weakening GB
• Napoleon's Defeat was caused by his invasions which often motivated nationalistic responses, the failed invasion of Russia and resulted in the scorched Earth Policy and Abdication of his throne.

Congress of Vienna (Topic 5.7)

• The Balance of Power was created in which no one state should be too powerful, leading to the Quadruple Alliance.
• States in the Quadruple Alliance were pushing for conservative measures
• The conservative rulers aimed to roll back or at least temper the liberal reforms that came out of the French Revolution and hearken back to aristocratic, church, and monarchical institutions
• They wanted to restablish the Balance of Power, making States create stronger national armies to prevent and further French aggression

Romanticism (Topic 5.8)

• The Rise of Romanticism acted as a balance to reason by emphasizing oher means of knowing like intuition and imagination
• Rousseau questioned the exclusive reliance on reason and emphasized the role of emotions in the moral improvement of self and society Challenged Enlightenment rationality and Held by individualism Religious revival movements like Methodism by John Wesley

Period 6: Industrialization and Its Effects (c. 1815-1914)

The Spread of Industry Throughout Europe (Topic 6.2)

• Industrialization began in Great Britain due to the Agricultural Revolution, abundant supply of Capital, Abundance of Entrepreneurs, Favorable government policies, Rich in mineral resources, Abundance of Markets, and the Incentive for inventors.
• The Great Exhibition put GB's industrialization efforts on display.
• France gradually adapted to mimic GB's policy, but slowly, mainly due to a lack of iron ore and coal deposits
• There was a Slow Adoption in Southern and Eastern Enrope due to a Lack of mineral resources, The persistence on old economic arrangements and Primitive agriculture and famines.

Second Wave Industrialization and Its Effects (Topic 6.3)

• The Second Wave (1870-1914) had Factory Dominance.
• Krupp Industries and Machester - First Industrial Park became popular and some saw standards of living increase.
• Electricity and telegraph, chemical engineering, railroads, combustial engine and advertising all increased due to the Effects of New Technology leading to consumerism and leisure activities like shopping.
• Economic Troubles: Money and Long Depression became scarce and increasing unemployment resulted in monopolies.
• Goverments established protective tariffs and in response to that many nations often engaged in trade wars and some formed Free Trade Agreements.

Industrialization in Prussia

• Prussia's large amount of mineral deposits allowed them to industrialize quickly - built railroads and factories.
• Trade suffered in respons to political tensions
• Zollverein Agreeement Lowered barriers to trade, and thus, united the German states economically

Social Effects of Industrialization (Topic 6.4)

• Two classes emerged, the Proleteriat and bourgeois
• Cheap, crowded Tenement Housing was the norm.
• In Northern and Western Europe, the changes between 1750 and 1850 were massive and disruptive, but in Southern and Eastern Europe, social structures remained largely unchanged during that century.
• Men worked and women stayed at home due to Strict gender roles, in rural settings, men and women were more equal and people married for love leading to a familial dynamic known as the Nurturing the nuclear family.
• The Ten Hours Act Restricted the total number of work hours to ten for children 13-18 Parks, Bicycles and Theatres marked different points of Lesiure Culture.

The Concert of Europe and European Conservatism (Topic 6.5)

• Conservatism suggests that governments are more stable when they uphold traditional and established norms and cultural institutions as well as remember that humans are inherently flawed
• In the Concert of Europe, which spanned roughly 50 years, Europe existed in the image of conservative rulers and, there was peace known as the Age of Matternich.
• Matternich's Goals included restoring the balance of power in Europe by installing legitimate rulers on the various thrones of Europe, make sure that European states upheld the rights and prerogatives of the landed aristocracy, and promoted need for organized religion
• Conservatism was used to smash Liberal Revolts.

Reactions and Revolutions (Topic 6.6)

• Revolutions in 1848 would seek to end the Age of Matternich.
• The Greek War for Independence saw Greece was ruled by Conservative Ottomans however, Greeks rebelled and would gain independence in 1832.
• The Decembrist Revolt Nicholas I rose to power in Russia and was notably conservative Russian officers known as Decembrists tried to take power, motivated by liberal ideas and reform.
• During the July Revolution in France Charles X was extremely conservative which led liberals motivated Middle class and working class liberals led an insurrection which would motivate Charles X to abdicate and flee
• Inspired by what they saw in France, revolutionaries in Prussia and other German states began to demand more liberal reforms as well, including constitutional reforms and voting rights, but most of all the unification of the German states.

Ideologies of Change and Reform Movements (Topic 6.7)

• Liberalism - Enlightenment idea supporting Limited government, Individual rights and popular sovereignty andEnlightened self interest, John Stuart Mill - The Subjegation of Women - shined women in a new light
• Socialism states A society's means of production should be owned by the community as a whole, not private individuals
• Marxism included the Communist Manifesto believing Class struggle would lead a new societal arrangement rise of the Proletariat

19th-Century Social Reform (Topic 6.8)

• In Mass-Based Political Parties As European nations etended the right to vote, political parties appealed to more voters' interests to win offices
• Social Democratic Party of Germany- based on Marxism
• Workers started to join Labor Unions
• Women's Rights - Supporters included Barbara Smith Bodichon and her Ladies of Langdon Place that worked for women's suffrage
• Religous Reform including the Sunday School Movement educating working class children and Abolitionist movement occurred.

Government Reform (Topic 6.9)

• A shift from Laissez-Faire to Interventionist occurred and new Public Health, Urban Planning, and Professional Police Forces emerged.
• Educational Reform sought to advanced public order, nationalism, and economic growth

Period 7: 19th-Century Perspectives and Political Developments (c. 1815-1914)

Nationalism (Topic 7.2)

• The Nation-State is Born
• A rising sense of nationalism would motivate more and more Europeans to demand their own state
• Causes of Growing Nationalism
  • 1. Romantic Idealism
  • Artists painted in ways that glorified the state
  • Grimm Brothers - folklore about German people
  • 2. Liberal Reform
  • Napoleon III introduced international trade cooperation
  • Universal male suffrage
  • 3. Political Unification
  • Giuseppe Mazzini attemmpted unified Italy
  • 4. Racialism
  • the idea that one race is more superior than another
• The Rise of Anti-Semitism
  • Dreyfus Affair: Jewish sailor that was accused of treason
• In Eastern Europe, Jews were evicted from their homes and sent to Pogroms where they were harassed and assaulted
• In response to this, a Jewish nationalism movement known as Zionism wrose up to defend Jews.
• Nationalism and Neoconservatism
  • Otto von Bismarck: Harness German Nationalism to eventually Unite Germany

National Unification and Diplomatic Tensions (Topic 7.3)

• The Crimean War (1853) saw a 50 year peace come to end as War starting over religous conflict in the Ottoman Empire which saw both France and Russia, aiming to weaken the Ottoman Empire
• War with the Russians and Ottomans resulted in Russia losing the war.
• The Crimean War effectively broke up the Concert of Europe which had kept the peace and the balance of power and Britain and France would begin to pull away from international affairs.
• Italian Unification (1861) made up of many independent states including Count Cavor who started a nationalistic movement in northern Italy which saw French and Austrians control northern italy.
• Giuseepe Garibaldi and his army, the Red Shirts, united the southern territory of Italy and expel the Austrians.
• German Unification (1871) Otto Von Bismarck: Master of realpolitik who had political maeuvering, blood and iron, Chancellor of Prussia wars of German Unification
  • 1. Prussian-Danish War
  • 2. Austrian Prussian War
  • 3. Franco-Prussian War: France looses territory and Prussia calls territories the 2nd Reich
• Austria creates a dual monarchy (Austria-Hungary)
• Diplomatic Tensions resulted, Otto von Bismark created alliances to secure Germany's power: includes the Three Emperors' League, and Reinsurance Treaty

Social Darwinism (Topic 7.4)

• Social Darwinism means that strong societies were the ones that adapted and thrived while weak societies were destined to fade away under the principle of natural selection

The Age of Progress and Modernity (Topic 7.5)

• The Rise of Positivism stated Any rational conclusion must be able to be proved by science or math and Positivism obliterated the idea that there was one overarching truth
• On one hand, the advances in science are creating significant strides in knowing the world truly, but on the other hand, the further science advanced, the more uncertain things became
• Modernism: Irrantionalism Humans are governed by emotion, impulses, passions, etc.

New Imperialism: Motivations and Methods (Topic 7.6)

• Motivations: 1. Economic, Raw materials and markets led to Wars, and 2. Political motivations which included Scramble for Africa and states gaining land.

Imperialism's Global Effects (Topic 7.7)

• Diplomatic Tensions lead the Global tensions between European states who all wanted more territory as a result of the Scramble for Africa.
• • Berlin Conference - Dividing up Africa
• The Morrocco Crisis, demonstraed the increasing bond between France and Britain Debates over Imperialism
• Artists: Heart of Darkness - the cruel rule of Leopold in the Congo Economists had different views
• Nationalist Resistance to Imperialism: Zulu Resistance Gathered an army and attacked the British and the Sepoy Mutiny against the British as well.

19th-Century Culture and Arts (Topic 7.8)

• Themes of Romantic Art: Emotion Nature, Individuality and the Supernatural
• The Rise of Realism: Sought to portray the world as it was and ordinary life and people:
• Modern Art: As the technology of photography was gaining widespread use, painters focused more on abstract

Period 8: 20th-Century Global Conflicts (c. 1914 - present)

World War I (Topic 8.2)

• Causes of WWI: Militarism, Alliances, imperialism and nationalism due to increased competition led to a strain on European nations due to increased competition
• Antagonist Alliances: Triple Alliance and triple entente
• Immediate Cause: Assasination of Franz Ferdinand (1914): Heir to Austria-Hungary Throne
• Germany invades Belgium leading to German blame due to Guilt Clause Germany's to the Schlieffen Plan.
• New Technologies contributed to Machine Gun and Trench warefare
• Discontent