Annual Training Plan

• It is unlikely that you can play your way into shape if you are starting a season after not playing for 4 months
• Game participation can be intense, meaning you need time between games to recover and you likely won't be able to catch up on training
• Bad habits of not training out of season can stay in-season

Annual Training Plan

• It is a training program organized and planned over a year
• It is a necessary requirement to maximize the improvement in an athlete's performance
• The main objective is to ensure physical and psychological peaking for the main competition of the year
• Schedule that breaks the year into distinct segments
• The training emphasis and load within each segment differ
• Segment differences include periodization
• The goal is to optimise performance for main competition, mentally and physically
• Annual Training Plans were initially developed for track and field
• It may still be most ideal for individual sports
• Important considerations include how the plan differs across sports
• Consider why it might be problematic for team sports
• Consider why it might be more problematic for pro sports

Advantages of an Annual Training Plan

• Avoids total off-season “de-conditioning”
• Avoids pre-season crash training
• Avoids the play your way into shape syndrome
• Allows for tapering and peaking during the season
• Allows for season to season improvement
• Provides variety
• Avoids overuse or injury and overtraining syndromes

Main Segments of the Annual Training Plan

• Off-season is the time between the end of one competitive season and the next and includes recovery, building, and prep phases
• Pre-season is the time between the off-season and in-season
• It is a bridge between off-season and in-season
• It is a transition phase from general to specific training
• In-season is the competitive season for teams or individuals
• Teams will have regular schedules of games, while individuals have intermittent series of competitions

Off-Season Training Goals

• Recover and heal from the previous season using physio, rehab, and surgery
• Provide a mental and physical break from sport through cross-training
• Improve weaknesses through strength training, maintaining general fitness and establishing a fitness foundation
• Maintain playing weight through diet
• The term off-season is a misnomer because this is when the most work is done

Pre-Season Training Goals

• Transition from general fitness to game conditioning and prepare for training camp
• Increase training intensity and change training type to increase training specificity
• Most sports teams shift from aerobic to anaerobic training, incorporate high-intensity interval training, and incorporate sprint interval training
• Teams increase specificity by going on the ice

In-Season Training Goals

• It is important to start the competitive season in ‘game shape’ and maintain conditioning during gameplay
• Maintain fitness with 50% volume if the intensity is high
• This approach allows you to focus on rest, recovery, skill development, prehab/rehab, and strength maintenance before, after, and between games, which provides 'reserve fitness' in case of injury
• Off-season is for detraining specific fitness, maintaining general fitness, and retraining deficiencies
• Pre-season is for attaining specific fitness
• In-season is to sustain specific fitness, and change the training load based on acute needs throughout the calendar year

Why You Should Train in the Off-Season

• What you do or do not do in the off-season eventually appears during the season
• Doug Gilmour, one of the best in the NHL, decided to change his off-season training which led to a rough start to the season
• Gary Roberts, Rob Brind’Amour, Teemu Selanne, and Scott Niedermeyer are other examples
• In-season can vary in length, season to season, even with a sport, between teams
• Getting to the playoffs can mean up to 2 months longer in the in-season, therefore, the off-season is shorter, and pre-season is the same, resulting in not enough recovery

Why Repeating is Difficult in any Sport

• There are more games, more intense games, and more injuries
• There is less time for surgery/recovery, less time to retrain, and more parties and less training
• Each NHL final subtracts a year from your career

Overtraining Implications

• On April 10, 1982, game 3 of the NHL quarter-finals, the Kings overcame the largest deficit in NHL history (5-0) to win a playoff game (6-5 OT)
• The Oilers finished 48 points ahead of the Kings, but the Kings knocked the Oilers out of the running due to overtraining

Tapering

• Reduces training load prior to competition
• Proper taper period is essential for optimal performance
• Average performance increase is 3%, but large variations are possible
• Best taper varies by sport
• Inter- and intra-individual differences are present and depend on fitness level x experience x age interactions
• It is straightforward for individual athletes versus more complicated for team athletes and not practical for pros, why?
• Tapering does not mean stopping training, rather, changing training
• Reduce training volume by 50% in the first 3-4 days before an important event and should be progressive
• Maintain frequency of training, duration should be reduced by 40% (step-wise)
• Maintain or even increase intensity, emphasizing quality over quantity, and make training as specific as possible by avoiding cross-training

Tapering: Why?

• Proposed mechanisms include fatigue dissipation
• Chronic vs. acute
• Damaged tissues repaired
• Injury
• Contractile protein function enhanced?
• Increased calcium sensitivity
• Energy reserves replenished Muscle glycogen?
• Better hormonal balance for performance
• Growth hormone, testosterone, etc
• Skills/technical training require variation
• The practice of varying the training program at regular time intervals in an attempt to bring about optimal gains in strength, power, motor performance and/or muscle hypertrophy

Periodization of Training

• Dividing training time into discrete 'blocks' where the training load is regularly changed
• Involves alternate periods of overload with periods of underload
• Ancient Greeks may have employed periodization methods
• Germans resurrected periodization for the Berlin Olympics
• Modern practice refined by eastern-block nations, starting in the 1950s, politically driven
• Matveyev did the theoretical groundwork
• Tudor Bompa (york uni) popularized in the west, more holistic approach to training
• Now mainstream for individuals and teams
• Basics of periodization include short and long-term manipulation of the training load
• Systemically varying training volume, intensity and type
• Benefits of periodized training improves adherence to a training regimen
• Allows for constant progression, helps avoid fitness plateaus
• Reduces occurrence and severity of injuries, prevents overtraining
• Allows for peaking, all found via meta-analysis
• Different periodization patterns are linear vs. non-linear and frequent vs. infrequent
• The training manipulates short and long term loading

Periodization Theory 1

• Repeating patterns of increased and decreased stress over time, including overload and underload
• These short and long term variations in training load allow an athlete to adapt and habituate while avoiding maladaptation
• Because training load (stress) is increased over time, it maximizes the training effect and minimizes injury
• The efficacy of periodization is supported by Rhea and alerman 2004 and Ronnestad 2014
• Each period of overload or underload should last approximately 2 weeks
• Performance tends to decrease during overload and increase during underload
• Underload provides recovery from chronic fatigue, muscle damage, glycogen depletion, and inflammation, causing performance increases
• Macrocycles are the longest training unit consisting of mesocycles
• They represent the overall training period of interest Olympic athletes = 4 years, NHL athlete = 1 year
• Mesocycles are a training phase consisting of several microcycles
• Their duration varies but is generally 2-6 months, the training load gradually increases over mesocycle
• Microcycles consist of daily training sessions with short duration, the training load varies from cycle to cycle, and includes periods of overload and underload
• Periodization is related to cardiovascular fitness, strength, flexibility and balance

Training Models

• Non-periodized training involves random or constant training
• Periodized training includes linear or non-linear changes
• Non-Periodized: Random training is most typical of non-athletes, weekend warriors
• There are changes in training load over time, random not systematized, and Cycles of detraining and retraining
• It is difficult to maintain or progress performance and leads to injuries
• It may be suitable for increased health and fitness, and not optimal for competitive athletes
• The training load remains relatively constant over time with non-periodized constant training
• Training volume or intensity may vary somewhat, but overall training load stays similar and can be used to achieve recommended activity levels
• It may improve or maintain fitness
• It is not suitable for competitive athletes
• Difficult to progress performance, increases the risk for overuse or injury, and compliance issues

Periodized Training: Linear

• The training load steadily increases over time with only overload and no underload
• It may produce max gains in the short term, but is not beneficial long term and cannot increase training load indefinitely without cause for injury or overtraining
• The critical need for underload is occasional rest/recovery
• Linear models should be limited to short term use
• Periodized Training is not intended to continually improve performance
• Non-linear training is for peak performance for most important competition and considers the big picture
• Short term variations in training load do not produce maximum gains in fitness over the short term, and evoke involution and devolution
• Long term variations in training load eventually produces large-scale increases in fitness/performance, tapering and peaking incorporation
• Competition can be a part of training

Big Picture: Annual Plan

• In an ideal world training is organized into off-season, pre-season, and in-season phases with distinct differences in training load
• Within different seasons, training should be periodized
• Easier for individual than team training in practice
• Taper should be performed before major events, which is ideal for individual athletes (not ideal for team athletes)

Periodization Findings

• Meta-analysis of strength training responses show periodized training is superior to non-periodized training
• Periodization is simply due to more volume or due to improved training compliance
• The effect is independent of greater volume/intensity, variation of volume, and intensity vital factors
• The more variation the better for increased strength and power (Daily > weekly > monthly)
• The examined differences are over a short time frame, but Periodization is designed for long-term training
• Most studies use linear periodization, but non-linear is superior to linear Both groups will improve and it is difficult to identify the effect Rhea and Alderman (2004) examined the efficacy of periodized training Examines the efficacy of the training and controls volume, frequency, and intensity between groups

Findings

• Effect size is greater for periodized than for non-periodized training
• Moderating variables included age, training status and training duration
• Both men and women with different experience levels and ages Effect size is sensitive to variations in training volume, intensity, and frequency in addition of loading progression
• Ronnestad (2014) compared periodization to traditional training using trained cyclists in a 4 week program using HIIT and LIT
• In the block periodized group, training was changed weekly
• In the traditional training group, training was the same every week
• Periodization improved relative performance more than traditional training
• Superior to traditional acutely when volumes are equal

Periodization Lingering Questions

• Is periodization better for men or women? Strength gains are similar
• Is periodization better for young or old? Effective in all age groups and more effective in young than old
• Is periodization limited to strength? No

Lecture 8 - March 14

• Obese people do not have lower metabolic rates than non-obese people, but do have higher absolute metabolic rates
• Related to larger organs, more muscle mass, more eating, higher energy cost of movement, and basal metabolic rate higher via adaptive thermogenesis
• Relative metabolic rate is lower
  • Extra fat is not using much energy in overall mass
• Obesity is an increase in body adipose tissue mass
• A condition in which the body's energy stores are too large
• Defined as BMI >30
• Obesity can lead to other cardiometabolic diseases including coronary artery disease and type II diabetes, or increased risk in premature morbidity and mortality
• Also metabolic syndrome (aka Syndrome X), dysfunctions in hormonal signaling
• Metabolic syndrome disrupts the ability to regulate weight
  • Is this why obesity is so difficult to reverse?
• Incidence of metabolic syndrome is ~25% of the US population, increases with age and inactivity
• What causes Obesity? Eating too much and moving too little
• If you consume high amounts of energy, particularly fat and sugars but do not burn off the energy through exercise and physical activity, much of the surplus energy will be stored by the body as fat
• Chronic energy imbalance accounts for most cases of obesity in genetically susceptible individuals
• Metabolic disorders or disease account for only 1% of obesity
• Those homozygous (16% of pop.) for the FTO gene have 1.7 fold increased risk of obesity 2 alleles > 3 kg of extra fat mass -1 allele >1.2 kg extra
• Studies in humans and rodents suggest that the FTO may predispose to obesity by influencing food intake and/or satiety
• There are phenotypic and molecular differences between rats selectively bread to voluntarily run high vs. low nightly differences

Familial Factors

• Children of obese parents do not have major defects in energy expenditure compared to those from nonobese parents Doesn't discount a genetic influence that is affected by genetics x environment
• Energy Over-Consumption is caused by many reasons including genes
• But why can't the expenditure keep up? Because we live in an increasingly obesogenic environment An unhealthy environment that is making traditionally harder things easier
• We live in a society where it is increasingly difficult to not become obese
• Engineered declines of physical activity are affecting people where there is increased household automation, PC driven work world, and car orientation
• The easy availability of energy dense foods/beverages, servings sizes increases along with acceptance of fast food despite low nutritional value or driving through calories
• sow gradual gain of body fat over a prolonged period of time.
• BMI 30 - excess 382 kcal/day compared to BMI - 40 - excess 1000kcal/day

Epigenetics and Obesity

• The balance of energy expenditure genes and energy storage genes
• The bodies generation of heat is known as thermogenesis
• Concept of Total Energy Thermogenesis, or the bodies total requirements (kcal/day) are compartmentalized: Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) Thermic Effect of Food (TEF) Total Activity Thermogenesis (TAT)

Total Energy Thermogenesis

• Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the minimum rate of metabolism to sustain life. There are predictive formulas based on resting metabolic rate.
• Thermic effect of food (TEF) is the energy cost of digestion and totals ~10% of food energy
• Total activity thermogenesis (TT) is broken into Exercise Activity Thermogenesis (EAT) and Non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT)
• Simple: based on mass
• It is important to differentiate between fat mass and muscle mass
• Precision can be increased by modifiers
• There are predictive BMR Equations:
• (14.7 x body weight) + 496 kcal = 1378 kcal (female)
• (15.3 x body weight) + 679 kcal = 1903 kcal male)

Body Composition and BMR?

• Because formulae are based solely on body mass
• They do not take into account differences in metabolic activity between fat free fat mass, and fat free mass is more metabolically active than fat mass
• Formulae that factor into body composition using Katch-mcardle formulae (BMR) or Cunningham formula (RMR)
• Harris-benedict formula is used to factor in Activity Level for: Moderately active: BMR x 1.25 or Very active: BMR x 1.5
• Resting metabolic rate is dynamic: inter and intrapersonal differences exist

Adaptive Thermogenesis

• Adaptive thermogenesis: total energy termogenesis changes in response to changes in diet
• BMR and TEF change in the same direction as energy intake changes
• A system which makes energy balance more dynamic
• BMR and TEF are associated with negative or positive feedback
• Decreases aloric expenditure during caloric deficits or Increases caloric expenditure during caloric surplus
• Adaptive Thermogenesis = Survival, with increasing or decreasing BMR, TET, TEF either preventing or slowing weight loss or gain
• Hormonally regulated by adipokines, adipose secretes hormones (e.g. leptin)
• Without adaptive thermogenesis, even a 5% error between kcal in and kcal out can resultin significant weight gain

Clinical Studies

• Levine (1999) examined relationship between increased kcal and increased BMR
• Fed 16 subjects an extra 1000kcal a day for 8 weeks
• Average weight gain was ~5kg, while fat mass, muscle mass, RMR, TEF, and NEAT all increased
• Can the Loss of Adaptive Thermogensis explain Obesity? If what regulates it, and whether it is better at keeping us fat or thin
• Abdominal (visceral) Fat is always endocrinic and abdominal fat is bad because there's lots of hormone secretion around important organs
  • More adipose leads to = More Adipokynes Adipokynes are adipose derived hormones (adiponectin) that enter the circulation and interact with various brain centers where the hypothalamus and other factors will regulate adaptive thermogenesis By modifying appetite or activity (EAT/NEAT), and modifies metabolic Leptin provides information to the brain regarding energy storage by Circulating with levels equivalent to adiposity
• In mice - leptin deficiency can cause obesity
• Leptin Deficiency in Humans Is rare
• Causes a small percentange of obesity
  • Leptin therapy has limited success because ciruclating levels did not solve the whole problem, or Loss of leptin sensitivity = leptin resistance

Leptin Resistance

• Occurs in response to chronically high leptin levels
• Due to high adipose tissue levels
• Disrupts adaptive thermogensis through links obesity with metabolic syndrome Importance of physical activity, prevents leptin resistance by maintaining leptin signalling How much extra muscle to boost BMR by 100 kcal/day based on RMR in skelatal muscle?
• Because it is every ow, 10-15 kcal/kg/day, boost BMR by 100kcal, add 6-7kh of muscle

Diets and the Truth about Calories

• Diet can be more important than exercise for weight loss A deficit of >500 kcal a day needed for acute weight loss
  • No diet composition matters more more than caloric deficits

Macronutrient recommendation?

• Reduce fat intake to decrease cardiometabolic risk factors
• Decrease simple carbs andIncrease complex carbs
• Because of adaptive theromgenesis, exercise is needed to sustain weightloss A kcal is a kcal, source doesn't matter

Gardner et al. 12018

• The study Examined the effect of low fat vs low carb diet on an average subject or Mean age 40 years with a BMI average = 33 in two randomized diets
• Weight loss was not significantly different between groups
• Although lower intensities will oxidize more fat, it is more important that all kcal is expended
  • Both can be done depending on if its more calories burned/time or based on CHO vs FFA dependent
  • Exercise intensity x diet interactions also affected that such as when recovery fat oxidation increases replacing CHO's lost
  • Lower-moderate intensity activity leads to Increases proportional kcal intake
  • High-intensity activity is still related to Does not cause proportional increased kcal intake
• MICT is better than HIIT for body composition measure but both reduced fat mass (weight, circumference)
  • HIIT is more effective use of time - and better for HIIT

Best advice for lifespan?

• Value in exercise in weight management with 3-4 hours/week
• Can combine with diet as itIncreases weight loss
• Combined with severe diet, it Does not increase weight loss
• Does cause Value of exxercies in maintaining healthy weight in long term (weight gains over time) by using >500 kcal a day Reduced disease risk can come from having exercies for decresed risks Steps vs. Reps
• Resistance work can prevent creeping obesity, but is not effective in inducing weight loss

Lecture 9 - March 21

• Key Exam points

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