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Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of the skeleton in animals?
What is the primary function of the skeleton in animals?
Which classification of the skeleton involves bones that are externally situated?
Which classification of the skeleton involves bones that are externally situated?
What component connects the diaphysis to the epiphysis in tubular bones?
What component connects the diaphysis to the epiphysis in tubular bones?
Which type of skeleton is typical of higher vertebrates?
Which type of skeleton is typical of higher vertebrates?
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Which of the following bones is considered part of the splanchnic skeleton?
Which of the following bones is considered part of the splanchnic skeleton?
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What type of bones are described as having a compact and spongy structure forming a tube?
What type of bones are described as having a compact and spongy structure forming a tube?
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How are the bones classified according to their situation?
How are the bones classified according to their situation?
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Which structure is involved in the growth of bones during development?
Which structure is involved in the growth of bones during development?
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What distinguishes long tubular bones from short tubular bones?
What distinguishes long tubular bones from short tubular bones?
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Which type of bone is primarily found in joints and helps with mobility?
Which type of bone is primarily found in joints and helps with mobility?
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What are pneumatic bones characterized by?
What are pneumatic bones characterized by?
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Which statement about sesamoid bones is accurate?
Which statement about sesamoid bones is accurate?
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In long bones, where is the compact substance typically thickest?
In long bones, where is the compact substance typically thickest?
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What defines irregular bones in the skeletal system?
What defines irregular bones in the skeletal system?
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Which type of bone features two compact layers enclosing a small amount of spongy substance?
Which type of bone features two compact layers enclosing a small amount of spongy substance?
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What is the primary role of the medullary cavity in long bones?
What is the primary role of the medullary cavity in long bones?
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What is primarily replaced by yellow marrow as a person grows?
What is primarily replaced by yellow marrow as a person grows?
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Which type of cell is responsible for resorbing or breaking down bone?
Which type of cell is responsible for resorbing or breaking down bone?
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What is the structural unit of bone known as?
What is the structural unit of bone known as?
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Where do nutrient arteries enter long bones?
Where do nutrient arteries enter long bones?
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Which component primarily contributes to the toughness or elasticity of bone?
Which component primarily contributes to the toughness or elasticity of bone?
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How is the color of fresh bone described?
How is the color of fresh bone described?
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What type of blood vessels ramify in the periosteum to supply bone?
What type of blood vessels ramify in the periosteum to supply bone?
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Which of the following is NOT found within the bone?
Which of the following is NOT found within the bone?
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What is the primary function of the periosteum?
What is the primary function of the periosteum?
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What distinguishes red bone marrow from yellow bone marrow?
What distinguishes red bone marrow from yellow bone marrow?
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Which structure forms the bulk of short bones and the extremities of long bones?
Which structure forms the bulk of short bones and the extremities of long bones?
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What is the role of Sharpey’s fibers in the periosteum?
What is the role of Sharpey’s fibers in the periosteum?
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What is the composition of the inner layer of the cranial flat bones?
What is the composition of the inner layer of the cranial flat bones?
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Where are osteoblasts primarily located?
Where are osteoblasts primarily located?
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Which of the following best describes the structure of cancellous tissue?
Which of the following best describes the structure of cancellous tissue?
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What membrane lines the medullary cavity of long bones?
What membrane lines the medullary cavity of long bones?
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What happens to the organic material of bone when it is subjected to burning?
What happens to the organic material of bone when it is subjected to burning?
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Which of the following statements is true regarding the growth of long bones?
Which of the following statements is true regarding the growth of long bones?
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As animals age, how does their bone structure typically change?
As animals age, how does their bone structure typically change?
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What role does the skeleton play in mineral storage?
What role does the skeleton play in mineral storage?
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Which part of the skeleton provides protection for the spinal cord?
Which part of the skeleton provides protection for the spinal cord?
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How does the width of bone increase during growth?
How does the width of bone increase during growth?
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What does the term 'decalcification' refer to in bone exposure to acids?
What does the term 'decalcification' refer to in bone exposure to acids?
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Which of the following is NOT a mechanical function of the skeleton?
Which of the following is NOT a mechanical function of the skeleton?
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What is the term for a round projection on a bone, such as the head of the femur?
What is the term for a round projection on a bone, such as the head of the femur?
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Which term describes a small round elevation on a bone?
Which term describes a small round elevation on a bone?
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What is the term for a thin elevation that marks the area often caused by muscle pull?
What is the term for a thin elevation that marks the area often caused by muscle pull?
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Which of the following is a non-articular depression on a bone?
Which of the following is a non-articular depression on a bone?
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What does the term 'styloid' refer to in bony projections?
What does the term 'styloid' refer to in bony projections?
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Which term describes a non-articular projection that is thick with defined borders?
Which term describes a non-articular projection that is thick with defined borders?
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What is the term for a shallow articular concavity on a bone?
What is the term for a shallow articular concavity on a bone?
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How is a 'cornu' process characterized?
How is a 'cornu' process characterized?
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Study Notes
General Anatomy - Osteology
- Osteology is the study of bones
- Objectives include:
- Classification of the skeleton
- Classification of bones
- Bone structure
- Blood supply of bones
- Nerves of bones
- Chemical and physical properties of bones
- Bone growth
- Function of the skeleton
- Descriptive terms of the skeletal system
Skeleton
- Skeleton is the framework of hard structures (bones and cartilages) that support and protect soft tissues in animals
- Term "skeleton" comes from a Greek word meaning "dried up"
- All bones and articulations of the body make up the passive part of the body
Classification of the Skeleton
- Exoskeleton: Located externally, derived from ectoderm. Examples include shells of invertebrates, scales of fish, shields of turtles, feathers, hair, and hoofs of vertebrates.
- Endoskeleton: Embedded in the soft tissues
Classification of the skeleton (B)
- Axial skeleton: Includes the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum
- Appendicular skeleton: Includes bones of the thoracic and pelvic limbs
Classification of the skeleton (3)
-
Visceral/splanchnic skeleton: Certain bones developed within soft organs. Examples include:
- Os penis of the dog
- Os cordis in ruminant hearts
- Ossa diaphragmatica in camel diaphragms
- Entoglossal bone in bird tongues
Phylogenetic Classification of the Skeleton
- Membranous skeleton: Characteristic of invertebrates with membrane or connective tissue (no hard skeleton).
- Cartilaginous skeleton: Found in cartilaginous fish.
- Bony skeleton: Found in higher vertebrates with bony structures
Classification of the Bones (A)
- Bones classified by location: head, neck, trunk, limbs, and tail
Classification of the Bones (B-1)
- Tubular bones: Composed of compact and spongy substances, forming a tube with a cavity
- Example: long bones
Bone Structure (3)
- Bone consists of an external shell of dense compact substance (cortex), containing loosely arranged spongy substance
- Shaft of long bones is hollowed to form the medullary cavity
Structure of a Long Bone (diagram)
- Diaphysis (shaft): Contains compact bone and a medullary cavity.
- Metaphysis: Junction zone between the diaphysis and epiphysis. Contains the epiphyseal plate during growth.
- Epiphysis: Ends of the bone, primarily composed of spongy bone, covered with articular cartilage.
Long Tubular Bones (A)
- Long, cylindrical bones (e.g., femur, humerus)
- Extend in one direction
- Consist of a shaft (diaphysis)
- Two extremities (epiphyses)
- Medullary cavity
Short Tubular Bones (B)
- Short bones, yet tubular
- Example: phalanges
Reduced Long Tubular Bones (C)
- Incomplete development
- Long bones, but lack or have a reduced medullary cavity
- Example: metacarpal and metatarsal bones; fibula and ulna of horses
Short Bones (2)
- Short, partially smooth-surfaced
- Primarily found in joints to aid mobility
- Mostly spongy substance, with a thin layer of cortical bone
- Example: carpal bones
Flat Bones (3)
- Plate-like, extending in two dimensions
- Composed of two layers of compact bone enclosing a small amount of spongy substance
- Example: bones of the cranium
Irregular Bones (4)
- Small, irregular surface
- Located mainly in midline of the skeleton
- Have projections for muscular attachments
- Example: vertebrae
Pneumatic Bones (5)
- Bones with air spaces (sinuses) instead of spongy or marrow
- Lined with mucous membranes
- Examples: frontal and maxillary bones (some)
Sesamoid Bones (6)
- Small, seed-like bones
- Reduce friction between tendons and bones
- Change direction of tendon pull
- Example: patella, navicular bone
Chemical Composition and Physical Properties of Bone (6)
- Bone is a mineralized connective tissue
- Primarily composed of inorganic salts and organic matter (ratio of approximately 1:2)
- Organic matter: Includes bone cells, ossein, collagen fibers, intercellular substance; gives bone toughness and elasticity
- Inorganic matter: Predominantly calcium phosphate (85%), followed by calcium carbonate (10%); provides hardness
Color of the Bone
- Fresh bone is yellowish-white
- Boiled and bleached bone is white
- Exposure to acid (e.g., HCl) dissolves calcium phosphate salts. The organic matter remains, retaining the bone's shape but making the bone soft and elastic
Bone Burning
- Burning removes organic matter
- Inorganic material remains, maintaining the bone's shape, but reduced elasticity (and thus, increased fragility)
Bone Growth (7)
- Flat bones: Enlarge through continued ossification at margins of connective tissue
- Long bones: Epiphyseal cartilage remains between epiphysis and diaphysis. It is replaced by bone after growth is complete
- Closure times of epiphyseal plates are important indicators of animal age.
- Bone width increases due to growth at the subperiosteal membrane
Function of the Skeleton (8)
-
Mechanical functions:
- Protection: Skull (brain cage), vertebral canal (spinal cord), thoracic cage (heart, lungs)
- Support/weight-bearing: Attachment points for soft tissues and organs.
- Provides levers for skeletal motion (long and short bones in combination with muscles and articulation)
-
Biological functions:
- Mineral storage: Calcium, phosphorus, iron—important in understanding metabolic diseases and diagnostic imaging.
- Hematopoiesis: Blood cell formation in bone marrow.
Descriptive Terms of the Skeletal System (9)
-
Bony elevations (projections):
- Head: Rounded (e.g., femoral head)
- Condyle: More or less spherical (e.g., femoral condyles)
- Trochlea: Pulley-like (e.g., femoral trochlea; patella)
- Capitulum: Small head (referencing bony elevation)
-
Non-articular projections:
- Process: Elongated projection (e.g., spinal process).
- Tuberosity: Relatively large rounded projection (e.g., lateral humeral tuberosity).
- Tubercle: Small rounded elevation (e.g., psoas minor tubercle).
- Crest: Elongated ridge (e.g., tibial crest).
- Spine: Small projection like a thorn (e.g., scapular spine).
-
Neck: Constricted area below the head (e.g., humeral neck).
- Line: Very low elevation demarcating an area (e.g., popliteal line).
- Styloid: Thick pin-like projection (e.g., styloid process of ulna).
- Hamulus: Curved, hook-like process (e.g., hamulus of pterygoid bone).
- Epicondyle: Non-articular projection near a condyle (e.g., femoral epicondyles).
- Trochanter: Large tuberosity—usually with square margins (associated with running).
- Cornu (coronoid): Shaped like a deer's horn (e.g., mandibular coronoid process).
- Ridge: Linear elevation with a sharp border
- Border: Separates two surfaces
Descriptive Terms of the Skeletal System (II)
-
Bony depressions (cavities):
- Glenoid cavity: Shallow, articular concavity (e.g., scapular glenoid cavity)
- Cotyloid: Deep, articular concavity (e.g., acetabulum)
- Notch: Articular indentation (e.g., semilunar notch of ulna)
-
Non-articular depressions:
- Fossa: Large, non-articular depression (e.g., atlantal fossa)
- Fovea: Small, non-articular depression (e.g., femoral fovea capitis)
- Foramen: Perforation in bone, allowing passage of vessels and nerves (e.g., foramen magnum)
- Fissure: Elongated deficiency like a cleft (e.g., palatine fissure)
- Canal: Passage with two openings (e.g., vertebral canal)
- Hiatus: Narrow passage with a hidden opening
- Meatus: Shallow elongated passageway
- Sulcus/groove: Linear depression with edges
- Sinus: Air cavity lined with a mucous membrane.
Blood Supply of the Bone
- Periosteal arteries ramify in the periosteum and branch into the compact bone's Haversian canals.
- Other branches supply spongy bone at the ends of long bones
- Nutrient/medullary artery penetrates compact bone, ramifies through marrow, and anastomoses with periosteal branches
- Epiphyseal arteries supply the epiphyses
- Metaphysial arteries supply the metaphyses
Nerves of the Bone (5)
- Bones are provided with sensory nerve endings (e.g., Vater-Pacini corpuscles) situated in the periosteum.
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Description
Test your knowledge of animal skeletal systems with this quiz. Explore topics such as bone classification, types of skeletal structures, and functions related to growth and mobility. Ideal for students learning about animal anatomy and physiology.