Animal Kingdom: Classification and Characteristics

Animal Kingdom

• Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms.
• Nutrition is heterotrophic.
• Animals exhibit diverse body plans and symmetry, including radial and bilateral forms.
• Levels of organization include cellular, tissue, organ, and organ system.
• Classification features include germ layers (diploblastic, triploblastic), coelom (acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, coelomate), segmentation (metamerism), and notochord.
• Phylum Porifera consists of sponges with a cellular level of organization.
• Sponges possess choanocytes (collar cells) and a water canal system.
• Phylum Cnidaria (Coelenterata) exhibits radial symmetry.
• Cnidarians have cnidocytes (stinging cells) and two body forms (polyp, medusa); examples include Hydra, jellyfish, and corals.
• Phylum Ctenophora includes comb jellies or sea walnuts that exhibit bioluminescence.
• Phylum Platyhelminthes consists of flatworms displaying bilateral symmetry and an acoelomate body plan.
• Many Platyhelminthes are parasitic, such as tapeworms and liver flukes; they possess flame cells for excretion.
• Phylum Aschelminthes (Nematoda) consists of roundworms, which are pseudocoelomate.
• Many nematodes are parasitic, such as Ascaris and filarial worms.
• Phylum Annelida consists of segmented worms, which are coelomate and exhibit metameric segmentation; examples include earthworms and leeches.
• Phylum Arthropoda is the largest phylum, characterized by jointed appendages and an exoskeleton of chitin; examples include insects, crustaceans, and arachnids.
• Phylum Mollusca consists of soft-bodied animals with a mantle and usually a shell; examples include snails, octopuses, and squids.
• Phylum Echinodermata consists of spiny-skinned animals with radial symmetry (adults) and a water vascular system; examples include starfish and sea urchins.
• Phylum Hemichordata consists of worm-like marine animals with a stomochord, a rudimentary structure similar to a notochord.
• Phylum Chordata is characterized by a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal gill slits, and a post-anal tail.
• Chordata includes the subphyla Urochordata, Cephalochordata, and Vertebrata.
• Vertebrata possess a vertebral column and cranium.
• Classes of Vertebrata include Cyclostomata (jawless vertebrates), Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish), Osteichthyes (bony fish), Amphibia (amphibians), Reptilia (reptiles), Aves (birds), and Mammalia (mammals).

Structural Organisation in Animals

• Tissues are groups of cells with similar structure and function.
• Epithelial tissue covers surfaces and lines organs.
• Types of epithelial tissue include squamous, cuboidal, columnar, ciliated, glandular, and transitional.
• Epithelial tissues feature tight junctions, adhering junctions, and gap junctions.
• Connective tissue connects and supports other tissues/organs.
• Types of connective tissue include loose (areolar, adipose), dense (regular, irregular), and specialized (cartilage, bone, blood).
• Cartilage contains chondrocytes.
• Bone contains osteocytes.
• Blood consists of plasma, RBCs, WBCs, and platelets.
• Muscle tissue is responsible for movement.
• Types of muscle tissue include skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.
• Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary.
• Smooth muscle is non-striated and involuntary.
• Cardiac muscle is striated, involuntary, and found in the heart.
• Neural tissue comprises neurons (nerve cells) and neuroglial cells, which support and protect neurons.

Human Physiology: Digestion and Absorption

• The digestive system includes the alimentary canal (mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, anus) and digestive glands (salivary glands, liver, pancreas).
• Digestion is the breakdown of complex food into absorbable forms.
• Mechanical digestion and chemical digestion by salivary amylase occur in the mouth.
• The stomach performs protein digestion via HCl and pepsin.
• In the small intestine, bile emulsifies fats, pancreatic enzymes digest carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, and intestinal enzymes complete digestion.
• Absorption involves nutrients passing into blood/lymph.
• The small intestine is where most absorption occurs, with villi and microvilli increasing the surface area.
• Glucose and amino acids are absorbed into the blood.
• Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into the lymph via lacteals.
• Disruptions to typical digestion includes PEM (Protein-Energy Malnutrition), indigestion, constipation, vomiting, jaundice, and diarrhea.

Human Physiology: Breathing and Exchange of Gases

• The human respiratory tract includes nostrils, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli.
• The lungs are responsible for gas exchange.
• Alveoli are thin-walled air sacs surrounded by capillaries.
• Inspiration involves diaphragm contraction and increased thoracic volume, causing air to enter the lungs.
• Expiration involves diaphragm relaxation and decreased thoracic volume, causing air to exit the lungs.
• Gas exchange occurs from alveoli to blood and from blood to tissues.
• Partial pressure gradients (PO2, PCO2) drive diffusion.
• Oxygen is transported by hemoglobin (oxyhemoglobin).
• Carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate and carbaminohemoglobin.
• Disorders include asthma, emphysema, and occupational lung diseases like silicosis and asbestosis.

Human Physiology: Body Fluids and Circulation

• Blood consists of plasma and formed elements (RBCs, WBCs, platelets).
• Blood groups include ABO and Rh.
• Coagulation involves clotting factors and a cascade mechanism.
• Lymph is tissue fluid found in lymph capillaries and lymph nodes.
• The human heart has four chambers: two atria and two ventricles.
• Circulation is double, including pulmonary and systemic circuits.
• The cardiac cycle involves atrial systole, ventricular systole, and diastole.
• Heart rate, stroke volume, and cardiac output are key parameters.
• An ECG (Electrocardiogram) monitors heart function.
• Disorders include hypertension (high blood pressure), coronary artery disease, angina pectoris, and heart failure.

Human Physiology: Excretory Products and Their Elimination

• The human kidney contains nephrons (functional units).
• A nephron consists of a glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, PCT, loop of Henle, DCT, and collecting duct.
• Urine formation includes glomerular filtration, reabsorption (PCT, loop of Henle, DCT), and secretion (PCT, DCT).
• Kidney function is regulated by ADH (antidiuretic hormone), the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, and atrial natriuretic factor.
• Disorders include uremia, renal failure, renal calculi (kidney stones), and glomerulonephritis.

Human Physiology: Locomotion and Movement

• Types of movement include ciliary, flagellar, and muscular.
• The skeletal system consists of bones, cartilage, and joints (fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial).
• Skeletal muscles contain actin, myosin, and sarcomeres.
• Muscle contraction occurs via the sliding filament theory.
• Disorders include myasthenia gravis, tetany, arthritis, osteoporosis, and gout.

Human Physiology: Neural Control and Coordination

• Neurons consist of a cell body, dendrites, and axon.
• Nerve impulse transmission involves resting potential, action potential, and synapse.
• The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord.
• The peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes cranial nerves and spinal nerves.
• The autonomic nervous system (ANS) includes sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
• The brain consists of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem (medulla, pons).
• Reflex action occurs via a reflex arc.
• Sensory reception and processing involve the eye (vision) and ear (hearing, balance).
• Disorders include Alzheimer's disease.

Human Physiology: Chemical Coordination and Integration

• The endocrine system uses hormones (chemical messengers).
• Endocrine glands include the hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, and gonads.
• Hormone action involves specific mechanisms.
• Disorders include diabetes mellitus, goiter, dwarfism, gigantism, and acromegaly.

Human Reproduction

• The male reproductive system includes testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and penis.
• The female reproductive system includes ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, and mammary glands.
• Gametogenesis includes spermatogenesis (sperm formation) and oogenesis (ovum formation).
• The menstrual cycle includes the ovarian and uterine cycles.
• Fertilization and implantation result in the formation of a zygote and blastocyst implantation.
• Pregnancy and embryonic development involve the placenta and gestation period.
• Parturition is childbirth.
• Lactation is milk production.

Reproductive Health

• Strategies and solutions to reproductive health problems are needed.
• Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) can be prevented.
• Birth control methods include natural, barrier, IUDs, oral contraceptives, and surgical methods.
• Infertility can be addressed with assisted reproductive technologies (ART) such as IVF (in vitro fertilization), GIFT (gamete intrafallopian transfer), and ZIFT (zygote intrafallopian transfer).

Principles of Inheritance and Variation

• Genetics focuses on heredity and variation.
• Mendel's laws of inheritance include the law of dominance, law of segregation, and law of independent assortment.
• Chromosomal theory of inheritance explains how genes are carried on chromosomes.
• Linkage and crossing over affect inheritance patterns.
• Human sex determination is genetically based.
• Sex-linked inheritance examples include color blindness and hemophilia.
• Genetic disorders include Mendelian disorders (e.g., phenylketonuria, sickle cell anemia) and chromosomal disorders (e.g., Down syndrome, Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome).

Molecular Basis of Inheritance

• DNA's structure is a double helix, and it replicates.
• RNA types include mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA, and it undergoes transcription.
• The genetic code facilitates translation (protein synthesis).
• There are gene expression and regulation mechanisms.
• The Human Genome Project mapped the entire human genome.
• DNA fingerprinting identifies individuals based on their DNA.

Evolution

• Origin of life theories exist.
• Theories of evolution include Darwin's theory of natural selection and mutation theory.
• Evolution's mechanisms are studied.
• The Hardy-Weinberg principle describes genetic equilibrium.
• There are various types of natural selection.
• The history of human evolution is explored.

Human Health and Disease

• Common human diseases include infectious diseases (bacterial, viral, fungal, protozoan) and non-infectious diseases (cancer, diabetes).
• Immunity can be innate or acquired (active, passive).
• Vaccines provide immunity.
• AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) is a major concern.
• Cancer is a non-infectious disease.
• Drug and alcohol abuse pose health risks.

Microbes in Human Welfare

• Microbes are used in food processing, industrial production, sewage treatment, biogas production, biocontrol, and as biofertilizers.

Biotechnology: Principles and Processes

• Principles of biotechnology include genetic engineering and bioprocess engineering.
• Tools of recombinant DNA technology include enzymes, vectors, and host organisms.
• Processes of recombinant DNA technology are employed.

Biotechnology and Its Applications

• Biotechnology applications span health, agriculture, and industry.
• Transgenic animals are created.
• Biotechnology raises ethical issues.

Ecology and Environment

• Interactions between organisms and the environment, including population interactions and the ecosystem.
• Ecosystem structure, function, productivity, decomposition, energy flow, ecological pyramids, and nutrient cycling.
• Biodiversity and its conservation: includes hotspots, endangered species, and conservation strategies
• Environmental issues include pollution, global warming, and ozone depletion.