Animal Learning and Cognition (all notes)

What is a primary advantage of studying animal cognition compared to studying human cognition?

What is a possible benefit of studying animal cognition in the context of human cognitive psychology?

How does the study of animal cognition benefit behavioural neuroscience?

One of the ways that studying animal cognition can contribute to the field of Artificial Intelligence (AI) is by:

What field of study specifically focuses on comparing the psychological abilities and processes of different species?

What was Darwin's pivotal contribution that initiated the modern study of animal behaviour?

Why is the study of animal cognition important for understanding human behaviour?

What is the definition of psychology, as presented in the provided text?

What was the main criticism that Conway Lloyd Morgan had of George Romanes' ideas about animal intelligence?

According to Lloyd Morgan's Canon, what is the preferred explanation for an animal's behavior?

What did Thorndike's research with cats in puzzle boxes reveal about animal learning?

What is the central idea of Thorndike's law of effect?

John B. Watson's approach to studying psychology emphasized what?

How does the theory of evolution by natural selection relate to the study of animal behavior?

Which of the following statements best exemplifies the idea of 'survival of the fittest' in natural selection?

What is the difference between Romanes' and Lloyd Morgan's approaches to understanding animal intelligence?

Which of the following is NOT a key component of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection?

How did John B. Watson’s work influence the study of animal behavior?

According to the conditioning model of drug tolerance, what happens when a drug is taken in an unusual context?

What is the primary mechanism by which drug tolerance develops, according to the information provided?

What is the main phenomenon observed in the study by Crowell, Hinson and Siegel (1981) on the hypothermic effects of alcohol?

Which of the following is NOT a factor that contributes to drug tolerance?

How does the concept of extinction relate to drug tolerance?

How does the information presented regarding drug tolerance help explain why drug users may relapse after returning to their normal environment?

According to the information presented, what is the primary reason why drug users may experience an increased risk of overdose in unusual environments?

What is the most significant difference between the biological and psychological factors contributing to drug tolerance as described in the content?

According to the article, which of the following statements about the concept of 'Generalisation decrement' in conditioned responding is TRUE?

Which of the following was NOT a major factor in the student rankings of animals' intelligence in the Nakajima et al. (2002) study?

What is the main criticism of Aristotle's 'Great Chain of being' concept in terms of animal intelligence?

What is the significance of the 'cephalization index' as described in the text?

Romanes' theory of linear progression in animal intelligence through natural selection is flawed because:

Which of the following statements BEST supports the idea that evolution is NOT a linear process?

Which of the following is NOT a criticism presented against the idea of ranking animal intelligence based on evolutionary history?

A large cephalization index in an animal suggests that:

The study by Clayton and Emery (2005) on crows primarily demonstrated that:

The main limitation of using brain size as an indicator of animal intelligence is that:

How did the group that received a mild poison respond to saline after their treatment?

What did Garcia propose about the cues associated with food and shock?

What term do psychologists prefer over 'intelligence' when discussing cognition in animals?

What capability must an animal possess to cache food successfully, according to Vander Wall's research?

How many photographs were pigeons able to discriminate in Vaughan & Greene's experiments?

Which of the following is NOT mentioned as a cognitive process in animals?

What phenomenon refers to animals responding at specific times, as demonstrated by mice?

What is the main reason the group shocked avoided drinking water in the presence of stimuli?

In terms of memory, how do the behaviors of pigeons and Clark’s nutcracker differ?

What influence does the circadian clock have on animals' behavior?

What type of memory is employed when animals recall past experiences to influence current behavior?

Why do animals typically show a preference for certain cues when learning?

What does cognition in animals often involve in terms of processing?

What is a demonstrated behavior of cockroaches related to their circadian activity?

What ability was Alex the parrot specifically trained to demonstrate?

What was the primary focus of Herrnstein, Loveland & Cable's 1976 study with pigeons?

What limitation did Cerella (1979) highlight about pigeons in terms of categorization?

What does the term 'subitizing' refer to in humans?

Which of the following concepts was proposed by Fodor regarding categorization?

What is the significance of the pigeons' ability to respond to novel photographs in the study by Herrnstein et al.?

Which capability was demonstrated in Alex the parrot concerning numerical information?

What do the results from Herrnstein et al.’s study imply about pigeons?

How do feature learning and exemplar learning differ?

Which training method was used to assess if chicks could learn food location?

What kind of memory challenge was presented to Alex the parrot regarding numerical counting?

What does the research by Cerella on categorization with pigeons emphasize?

In the context of categorization, what type of images were presented to the pigeons by Herrnstein et al.?

What conclusion can be drawn regarding the ability of animals to categorize as discussed in the content?

What was the effect of presenting different tones at S1 and S2 with a 60-second delay?

What is referred to as retroactive interference in the context of memory?

What physiological system is responsible for producing a response in animals?

In the radial maze task, how long can rats remember previously visited arms?

What did Whitlow's experiment with a distractor aim to demonstrate?

How does memory during the radial maze task compare to habituation in terms of interference?

What did Miller and Berk's study on Xenopus frogs demonstrate?

What type of theory emphasizes the importance of consolidation in long-term memory retention?

What physiological system is responsible for perceiving the stimulus?

In the context of the radial maze, which method was used to assess retroactive interference?

What was NOT demonstrated by the radial maze tasks according to Roberts (1981)?

What aspect of habituation does the use of a distractor relate to?

What is the expected outcome if pigeons successfully categorize based on features of rewarded slides?

What is one potential reason for the differences in memory capabilities between short-term and long-term memory systems?

What is the key concept that describes strong conditioned responses to stimuli similar to the trained one?

Which of the following is an example of dishabituation?

What does habituation refer to in the context of animal behavior?

In Wagner's model of habituation, what happens to a memory once it moves to the inactive state?

According to Whitlow's findings, what happens to the response to S2 when the delay is increased from 60 seconds to 150 seconds?

What does the A1 state in Wagner's memory model represent?

What phenomenon does effector fatigue explain in the context of animal behavior?

What role does recognition testing play in the study of animal memory?

What is the main limitation of the A2 state in Wagner's model?

What is one main characteristic of exemplar learning?

How is stimulus generalization important for understanding categorization in animals?

What does habituation suggest about an animal's ability to adapt to its environment?

What was the main finding of Bernal-Gamboa and colleagues in relation to the studies of habituation?

What happens to drug users after they return to their normal environment post-treatment?

In the study by Siegel et al., what percentage of subjects experienced an overdose when heroin was administered in a different environment?

Which factor does NOT influence the conditioned response in learning?

What concept explains that events occurring close together in time or space will become associated?

What does the Rescorla-Wagner model emphasize as essential for effective learning?

According to Wagner's theory of attention, which stimuli receive high attention?

Which experiment demonstrated that conditioning can occur even without contiguity?

In the context of conditioned responses, which statement is true regarding the principles of latent inhibition?

What is the effect of blocking in the conditioning process?

What is the primary implication of extinction being context dependent in drug use?

What is necessary for the consolidation of memory according to Hebb's theory?

What effect did electroconvulsive shock (ECS) have on rats during Duncan's study?

How did the reminder training influence the rats' performance in the Deweer, Sara, & Hars study?

In the context of Pavlovian conditioning, what happens to a neutral stimulus after repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus?

What was a primary finding of Holland's research regarding conditioned stimuli?

Following Duncan's study, what can be inferred about the role of ECS immediately after learning?

What was the primary behavior observed in the trained rats in the maze study after a 25-day delay?

What conclusion can be made regarding forgetting from long-term memory based on the Deweer, Sara, & Hars experiment?

Which of the following best defines the response that occurs after conditioning in Pavlov's experiment?

What effect did changing lighting conditions have on male rats in response to a conditioned stimulus?

What effect does a conditioned stimulus (CS) have after it is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US)?

Which type of response is characterized by an animal showing anticipatory behavior toward a US?

Which of the following best describes stimulus substitution?

Which statement accurately represents Skinner's views on human behavior?

What is a key feature of autoshaping in pigeons?

In the context of operant conditioning, what does the term "response shaping" refer to?

What distinguishes appetitive unconditioned stimuli (US) from aversive US?

Which of the following is an example of a variable schedule of reinforcement?

In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment, what is the unconditioned response (UR)?

In the context of Wagner's theory, what is crucial for effective learning?

What happens during conditioned suppression?

What does the term "extinction" refer to in classical conditioning?

What is the main difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning?

According to Mackintosh's theory, what attracts an animal's attention?

LePelley's theory suggests that we pay more attention to cues that indicate what to expect in the future. What does this imply?

Which of the following psychologists is most closely associated with the development of the Skinner Box?

What is characteristic of preparatory responses compared to other types of responses?

What is the primary focus of Titchener's structuralism?

Which of the following statements accurately describes the relationship between Thorndike's Law of Effect and operant conditioning?

Which of the following factors can lead to blocking in associative learning?

After conditioning, what does the CS trigger in relation to the US?

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of classical conditioning?

What is the concept of "generalization" in classical conditioning?

In Pavlovian conditioning, what is the main role of the unconditioned stimulus (US)?

What occurs during the process of stimulus substitution in conditioning?

Which of the following best describes the difference between Wundt's introspection and Skinner's behaviorism?

Which of the following is NOT a reason why Skinner primarily used rats and pigeons in his experiments?

According to the passage, what is Skinner's main argument in "About Behaviorism (1974)"?

How does the statement "and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors” illustrate Skinner's views on behaviorism?

Which of the following statements accurately reflects the relationship between Pavlov's work and Skinner's work on conditioning?

What did Bolles & Lorge (1962) find when rats were reared on 19 or 29 hour diurnal cycles?

In the research concerning interval timing, what did Church & Deluty (1977) demonstrate about rats?

What did Pfungst (1908) discover about the horse Clever Hans's ability to solve arithmetic problems?

What is Lloyd Morgan’s (1894) Canon?

What did Meck & Church (1983) demonstrate about rats in their research on number representation?

What did Brannon & Terrace (2000) find when they trained rhesus monkeys to touch squares with different numbers of dots on them?

What did Rugani, Regotin & Vallortigara (2007) discover about five-day-old chicks in their research?

Which of the following is NOT a type of timing that has been studied in animals?

Which of the following researchers demonstrated that the 24-hour clock, or a close approximation, is likely innate in rats?

In what way did the research of Church & Gibbon (1982) provide evidence for generalisation curves in timing?

Which of the following examples demonstrate the ability of animals to use number representation?

Which of the following is NOT a potential confounding factor that needs to be controlled for in studies of animal numerosity?

What is a key characteristic that distinguishes interval timing from circadian rhythm timing?

Which of the following research studies highlights the limitations of simple associative learning principles in explaining animal cognition?

Which of the following researchers' findings, if true, would provide the strongest support for Lloyd Morgan's Canon?

Which of the following is NOT a common critique of using brain size as a measure of intelligence across species?

What is the central problem with using the speed of learning as a measure of intelligence across different species?

What is the main justification for using the Social Intelligence Hypothesis to explain the evolution of large brains in animals?

What is the main argument against using 'innovation rate' as a measure of intelligence in animals?

What is the main point of the 'Null Hypothesis' in assessing intelligence across species?

What is the main point of the 'Foraging Intelligence Hypothesis'?

What is the main argument of the 'Social Intelligence Hypothesis'?

What is the main problem with using 'appearance' as a measure of intelligence across species?

What is the main problem with using 'Aristotle's Great Chain of Being' as a measure of intelligence across species?

What is the main argument that Anaxagoras and Macphail make regarding intelligence?

What is the main argument against using 'Evolution' as a measure of intelligence across species?

Why is it difficult to equate the 'perceptual demands' of intelligence tests for different species?

How does 'Bitterman (1975)' attempt to address the issue of 'contextual variables' in intelligence tests?

What is the main message conveyed by the 'Garcia & Koelling (1966)' rat experiment?

What is the main problem with using the 'cephalisation index' as a measure of intelligence across species?

What is the major issue with using 'learning speed' as a measure of intelligence across species?

In the study by Shanks, Pearson, and Dickinson (1989), what was the primary finding?

Which of the following studies demonstrated the effect of delay on smoking behavior?

What is the main principle behind the use of token economies in behavioral modification?

In the study by Fox, Hopkins, and Anger (1987), what was the significant outcome of using a token economy in a mine setting?

Which of the following studies directly investigated the relationship between delay of gratification and choice preferences?

What is the primary difference between extinction and counterconditioning?

Which of the following is NOT a valid category in DSM-IV for phobias?

How does second-order conditioning explain the development of phobias?

Which of the following is an example of a specific phobia, according to the text?

What is the main principle behind systematic desensitization as a treatment for phobias?

What does the Premack principle suggest about reinforcement?

What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers?

What is the main implication of delayed reinforcement in terms of learning?

What is a key characteristic of social reinforcers?

How did Mary Cover Jones treat Baby Peter's fear of rabbits?

In the context of drug tolerance, what does the information presented suggest about the potential for relapse?

Which of the following best illustrates the concept of 'blocking' in Pavlovian conditioning?

What is the main difference between 'systematic desensitization' and 'exposure therapy' as treatments for phobias?

Which of the following statements BEST describes the 2-system hypothesis of conditioning?

How does the research by Droungas et al. (1995) support the concept of unconscious conditioning in smoking?

According to the principles described, what serves as the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) in the context of drug tolerance?

In Shep Siegel's experiment with rats and morphine, what was the key difference between the M-P-M group and the M-Rest-M group during the second stage, which led to different levels of drug tolerance?

In the context of drug tolerance, what is the role of the Compensatory Conditioned Response (CR)?

According to the model described, why might a drug user experience a greater effect from a drug when taken in a new context?

What conclusion can be drawn regarding the nature of conditioned responses (CRs) based on the information provided?

In the experiment with the M-P-M and M-Rest-M rats, what would be the expected effect of the amount of time elapsed if it were the reason for the change in drug tolerance?

In the context of drug tolerance, if the injection of a drug is considered the Conditioned Stimulus (CS), what is the Unconditioned Stimulus (US)?

In the case of human drug abuse, what is considered the Conditioned Stimulus (CS), rather than the injection itself?

According to Pearce-Hall theory, what happens to attention once an animal has fully learned the association between a stimulus and an outcome?

In the Kaye & Pearce (1984) experiment, which group of rats demonstrated that attention to a stimulus remained high even after repeated exposure?

What is the primary goal of counterconditioning in the treatment of drug abuse?

Why is extinction often considered an unsuccessful long-term treatment for drug-related conditioned responses?

In the context of treating smoking addiction, what would be an example of applying extinction principles?

What role does vicarious conditioning play in the development of phobias?

What is the primary purpose of creating a hierarchy of anxiety-related cues in systematic desensitization?

In systematic desensitization, what action does the therapist instruct the patient to perform while imagining anxiety-related situations?

What is the primary reason that abstinence alone is often unsuccessful in treating smoking addiction from a conditioning perspective?

What is the primary mechanism by which systematic desensitization helps individuals overcome phobias?

What is the most significant difference between Group Continuous and Group Partial in the Kaye & Pearce (1984) experiment?

If cravings for drugs are the result of conditioning, which of the following treatment approaches would most effectively prevent those cravings from occurring?

What is the critical first step a therapist must take when employing systematic desensitization to treat a patient's disordered behavior?

Which of the following best describes the role of 'controlled processing' in the context of learning a new task?

In applying conditioning principles to understand cravings, what acts as the unconditioned stimulus (US) in the case of smoking?

According to the principle of contiguity, which statement accurately describes how learning occurs?

How did Smith & Roll's (1967) findings challenge the principle of contiguity in learning?

In Garcia & Koelling's (1966) experiment, what did the results reveal about the types of associations that rats readily learn?

What did Rescorla’s (1967) 'truly random control' experiment demonstrate regarding the relationship between a CS and a US for learning to occur?

According to Kamin's research on blocking, what is a critical factor for successful conditioning to occur?

In Kamin's blocking experiment, why did the 'blocking group' show a lower response to the light presented alone in stage 2?

In Kamin’s experiment, why did the rats in the 'group surprise' learn about the light in stage 2, unlike the blocking group?

What is the main principle behind the Rescorla-Wagner model of associative learning, which was built upon Kamin's blocking data?

What role does selective attention play in animal learning, similar to its role in human cognition?

In the context of Latent Inhibition (LI), why does the experimental group learn slower in stage 2 compared to the control group?

According to Wagner's theory on attention in learning, how does the novelty of a stimulus affect attention?

How does Mackintosh's theory explain the changes in attention to the light in the experimental group during the Latent Inhibition procedure?

What is the central distinction in processing that Pearce-Hall proposed, influencing their prediction about attention during learning?

According to Pearce-Hall, when is attention expected to be high during stimulus learning?

How do the theories of Wagner, Mackintosh, and Pearce-Hall differ in explaining what factors determine animal attention?

Which of the following is an example of using virtual reality (VR) in therapy, as suggested by the presented content?

What defines a primary reinforcer?

According to Premack's principle, what determines the effectiveness of a potential reinforcer?

Which of the following best describes a secondary or conditioned reinforcer?

In the case of Ann, the nursery school child, what strategy did Allen et al. use to modify her behavior?

According to Dickinson et al. (1992), how does delaying reinforcement affect a rat's behavior in a conditioning chamber?

Why might humans still be reinforced even with a long delay between action and reward?

What did Rachlin and Green's (1972) experiment with pigeons demonstrate about delayed reinforcement?

What type of therapy uses imagined interactions to address patient anxiety?

What do you call an event that strengthens the association between a stimulus and a response, making the response more likely to occur in the future?

Which of these examples involve access to sensory stimulation as a primary reinforcer?

Which experiment used the Premack principle to reinforce good behaviour?

Which psychologist studied Ann, who engaged in a number of odd behaviours, such as talking very quietly, poking and pinching her skin, and talking only to adults?

What type of social reinforcement is smiling in three-month-old infants?

When should a reinforcer be presented?

According to Thorndike's experiments, what is the primary mechanism by which animals solve problems?

How does deductive reasoning differ from inductive reasoning in problem-solving?

What key element does Thorndike's Law of Effect introduce to the understanding of animal learning?

In the context of desert ant navigation, what does dead reckoning involve?

What did Wehner and Srinivasan's experiment with desert ants reveal about their navigation strategies when the direction of polarised light was flipped?

In the context of animal navigation, what key aspect defines piloting?

How does the use of multiple landmarks affect an animal's accuracy when finding a food location, according to Cartwright and Collett's study?

What was the primary challenge to the behaviourist perspective posed by Tolman's research on cognitive maps in rats?

What critical question about cognitive map formation was investigated by Morris (1981) using the water maze?

What did Kohler's (1925) experiments on insight learning in chimpanzees primarily demonstrate?

How did Epstein et al.'s (1984) experiment with pigeons and the box-pushing task challenge anthropomorphism in studies of animal cognition?

What was the significance of Weir, Chappell, and Kacelnik's (2002) research on tool use in New Caledonian crows?

What is the general conclusion regarding how animals solve problems, based on the information provided?

What is meant by 'analogical reasoning' in the context of animal cognition?

In Gillan and Premack's (1981) study on analogical reasoning, what were animals trained to do?

What does the study of the digger wasp demonstrate about their spatial memory?

How do animals use a landmark to calculate a vector?

How did the design of the Morris water maze minimize constraints on the rats' movements, unlike other maze designs?

With regards to animal problem solving, what is meant by the term 'insight'?

What was the overall conclusion of Tolman, Ritchie, and Kalish's (1946a) research?

Which scenario best exemplifies deductive reasoning, as applied to animal cognition?

What is the key distinction between inductive and deductive reasoning in the context of animal problem-solving?

In the context of animal navigation, how does 'dead reckoning' differ from trial and error?

How did Wehner & Srinivasan (1981) demonstrate that desert ants use dead reckoning?

Which cognitive abilities are necessary for an animal to perform dead reckoning effectively?

If desert ants were prevented from accurately tracking their body movements, what impact would this have on their ability to navigate using dead reckoning?

How can studying navigation in animals like desert ants contribute to our knowledge of animal cognition?

Which of the following scenarios demonstrates an animal using deductive reasoning to solve a problem?

What did Wehner and colleagues discover about ants regarding their navigation abilities?

How did Collett and his colleagues demonstrate that gerbils use landmarks for navigation?

What key behavior defines 'piloting' in the context of animal cognition?

What two abilities should animals with a 'cognitive map' be able to demonstrate?

What is a major critique of Tolman's and Morris's experiments regarding cognitive maps in rats?

What did Wolfgang Köhler conclude about chimpanzees' problem-solving abilities?

Why is prior experience considered important when evaluating insightful behavior in animals?

What experimental evidence suggests that prior experience might be crucial for 'insightful' problem-solving?

What remarkable behavior did Betty, the New Caledonian crow, demonstrate in the lab?

What does reasoning by analogy suggest about an animal's cognitive abilities?

In an analogy task such as 'Cat is to kitten as cow is to...?' what must an animal understand to respond correctly?

How did Gillan and Premack assess analogical reasoning in the chimpanzee, Sarah?

What does the ability to solve analogical reasoning tasks suggest about an animal's cognitive capabilities?

What specific skill was Sarah the chimpanzee taught to facilitate her participation in analogical reasoning tasks?

In the task performed by Sarah, what type of relationship was she evaluating when presented with a large triangle containing a spot and asked to find the right match?

What distinguishes the waggle dance from the round dance in honeybees, as demonstrated by Von Frisch?

According to the definition provided, which scenario does NOT qualify as communication between organisms?

How does the information transmitted by honeybees through their dances contribute to the hive's foraging efficiency?

Considering the broad definition of communication, what is the most critical element for a signal to be considered communicative?

While Von Frisch's work elucidated the communication methods of honeybees, which aspect of their communication remains a complex area of study?

In studies of animal language acquisition, why might researchers use goggles with experimental subjects?

How does the study of animal navigation contribute to our understanding of cognitive mapping?

Which core principle, highlighted in the context of associative learning, is MOST crucial for the establishment of a conditioned response (CR)?

Considering that both honeybees and vervet monkeys are capable of communication, what distinguishes true language acquisition from simpler communication systems?

How does evaluating animal problem-solving skills through 'insight' differ from assessing it through 'trial and error' learning?

How do honeybees communicate the direction of a food source in relation to the sun's position?

What was the primary method used by Gardner and Gardner (1969) to communicate with Washoe?

Which of the following best describes how honeybees communicate the distance of a food source from their hive using the waggle dance?

In Seyfarth and Cheney's study, what was significant about the vervet monkeys' alarm calls?

What evidence suggested that Washoe was capable of productivity through syntax?

How did Loulis, the adopted chimp, learn to communicate?

According to Chomsky, what is a key characteristic that differentiates human language from animal communication?

Why did early attempts to teach apes to speak have limited success?

Which of the following communication techniques was used by Premack (1971) in the training of Sarah?

According to Macphail, what is the primary difference between human and animal intelligence?

What aspects of language did Sarah demonstrate through her use of card symbols?

According to the information, what is 'displacement' in the context of Sarah's communication skills?

Which of Hockett's criteria for language is BEST represented by the honeybee dance in the context of communicating about a food source?

According to Hockett's criteria, what distinguishes human language from other forms of animal communication?

What was the primary criticism made by Herb Terrace regarding ape language studies?

What did Terrace's study with Nim Chimpsky reveal about the chimp's use of language?

How does the communication of the Vervet monkey demonstrate 'semanticity' according to Hockett's criteria?

What is a 'position habit' in the context of Nim's language acquisition, according to Terrace?

What is the key element of the waggle dance that allows bees to communicate the distance of a food source?

How did Terrace compare Nim's language development to that of a human child?

Which aspect of the Vervet monkey's alarm calls suggests that their communication is not entirely innate?

How might language contribute to the ability of humans to live in large and more or less harmonious social groups?

What did the researchers in Louis Herman’s lab demonstrate regarding dolphins and language?

Considering Hockett's design features of language, which best explains how human language can adapt to new situations and concepts?

What point does the information make about the production versus comprehension of language in animals?

What is a key distinction that separates human language from animal communication based on Chomsky's perspective?

What was the primary focus of Pepperberg's research with Alex, the parrot?

In the context of animal communication studies, what is required for a behavior to be considered a demonstration of syntax?

How do the alarm calls of Vervet monkeys illustrate the concept of learned behavior in animal communication?

Which factor poses a significant challenge in determining whether apes truly create sentences?