Animal and Plant Reproduction

Animal and Plant Reproduction

• Living organisms reproduce to ensure the continuation of their species
• Sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction are the two main types of reproduction

Types of Reproduction

Sexual Reproduction

• Requires two parents
• Each parent provides a specialized sex cell, known as a gamete
• In males, the gamete is sperm, and in females, it is an egg or ovum
• During fertilization, gametes combine to form a zygote
• The zygote develops into a new organism
• In animals, the fusion of sperm and egg results in a zygote that grows into an embryo
• In plants, male gametes (pollen) are transferred to female gametes (ovules) through pollination
• Pollination leads to fertilization and seed formation
• Sexual reproduction introduces genetic variation, which helps species adapt to environmental changes and survive

Asexual Reproduction

• Requires only one parent
• The offspring are genetically identical to the parent
• Binary fission: A single organism splits into two (e.g., bacteria, amoeba)
• Budding: A small growth on the parent body develops into a new individual (e.g., Hydra, yeast)
• Fragmentation: The body breaks into pieces, and each fragment grows into a new organism (e.g., starfish, flatworms)
• Parthenogenesis: An unfertilized egg develops into a new individual (e.g., some insects, reptiles)
• Regeneration: Certain animals can regrow lost body parts, forming a whole new organism (e.g., planarians, echinoderms)

Vegetative propagation

• New plants grow from parts of the parent plant
• Examples of these parts are tubers (potatoes), stolons (strawberries), and rhizomes (ginger)
• Unlike sexual reproduction, this does not require seeds or spores
• Garlic, onions, and tulip plants reproduce using true bulbs, also known as scaly bulbs
• Garlic, onions, and tulip plants have short underground stems with a basal plate, surrounded by modified leaves that form a papery covering called a tunic
• Crocuses reproduce using corms, which are similar to true bulbs but have fewer layers
• Crocuses get replaced by one or more new corms during the growing season
• Potato plants reproduce using tubers, which are underground growths that produce new plants from stems or growing points
• Ginger plants reproduce using rhizomes, stems that grow sideways along the soil and branch apart to produce new points of growth
• Strawberry plants reproduce using stolons, which look like branches growing along the ground
• Stolons anchor and develop roots, which grow into new plants

Fragmentation

• Parts of plants, such as leaves or stems, break off and grow into new plants

Apomixis

• Some plants create seeds with fertilization, like certain grasses

Asexual vs Sexual Reproduction

• Asexual reproduction allows for rapid population growth
• The offspring has less adaptability to environmental changes because they are genetically identical

Comparison Between Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

• Sexual reproduction involves two parents, high offspring diversity, slower speed, and better adaptability
• Asexual reproduction involves one parent, low offspring diversity, faster speed, and rapid reproduction with less adaptability

Pollination

• Pollination is essential for sexual reproduction in flowering plants and can occur in two ways
• Self-pollination occurs when pollen from a flower fertilizes ovules in the same plant
• Cross-pollination occurs when pollen is transferred between different plants, usually by wind, insects, birds, or mammals
• Pollination leads to fertilization and the formation of seeds
• Plants produce oxygen, which animals consume for cellular respiration
• Animals release carbon dioxide, which plants use for photosynthesis
• This cycle maintains atmospheric balance and supports life

Module 2: Plant Reproduction and Development

Flowering plants (Angiosperms)

• Have seeds enclosed in fruits
• Examples are mango trees, grasses, and oak trees

Non-flowering plants (Gymnosperms)

• These lack flowers and produce exposed seeds, such as pine trees and conifers

Ferns and Mosses

• These plants do not produce seeds, but reproduce through spores

Fertilization Process in Plants

• Pollination occurs when pollen from the male part (stamen) reaches the female part (stigma)
• Fertilization results in a zygote, which develops into an embryo inside a seed
• Once conditions are ideal, the seed germinates and produces a new plant

Fertilization in Animals

• A fusion of sperm and egg produces a zygote, which becomes an embryo
• Internal fertilization occurs inside the body (e.g., humans, birds, dogs)
• External fertilization occurs when the female releases eggs and the male fertilizes them outside the body (e.g., frogs, fish)

Types of Fertilization and Development

• Internal fertilization with internal development: Humans, pigs, dolphins
• Internal fertilization with external development: Chickens, snakes, crocodiles
• External fertilization with external development: Frogs, fish

Hermaphroditic Animals

• Some animals possess reproductive organs for both sexes, like tapeworms, which can self-fertilize

Animal vs Plant Development

• Plants use pollen for male gametes and ovules for female gametes
• Animals use sperm for male gametes and eggs for female gametes
• Plants undergo fertilization inside the flower
• Animals undergo fertilization inside the body or externally
• Plants develop from a seed, animals develop from an egg or the mother's womb
• Plant growth is germination of a seed, animal growth is developing into a fetus then an adult

Plant Nutrition

Autotrophic

• Some plants are autotrophic, creating their food through photosynthesis using carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight

Heterotrophic

• Other heterotrophic plants rely on nutrients from parasitic plants that take nutrients from hosts and saprophytic plants that get nutrition from decomposing matter

Symbiotic

• Symbiotic plants form relationships to enhance nutrient absorption

Alternative Nutritional Strategies

Parasitic Plants

• They depend on the host for nutrients and water

Saprophytic Plants

• They get the nutrients from decomposing organic material

Symbiotic Plants

• These include lichens, who get food from algae and supply water and minerals from fungi

Epiphytes

• They grow on other plants and absorb water and nutrients

Insectivorous Plants

• They trap and digest insects for nutrition and supplement the nutrients

Plant Processes

• Photosynthesis enables food in the chloroplasts of cells
• sunlight then converts carbon dioxide and water to glucose to give energy, with the byproduct of oxygen

Animal Nutrition

• Animals cannot create food on their own
• Food is consumed and broken down and absorbed for cellular function and energy

Animal Dietary Classifications

Herbivores

• They consume only plants and have specialized digestive systems to process the materials (e.g., deer, caterpillars)

Frugivores

• Consume fruit (e.g., monkeys, fruit bats, parrots)

Granivores

• Consume seeds (e.g., pigeons, sparrows, rodents)

Nectivores

• Consume nectar (e.g., hummingbirds, bees, butterflies)

Folivores

• Consume leaves that are harder to digest (e.g., koalas, sloths, caterpillars)

Carnivores

• Eat other animals, some entirely on meat while others eats plants as well (e.g., lions, snakes)

Obligate Carnivores

• They depend entirely on animal flesh for survival (e.g., lions, tigers, cats)

Facultative Carnivores

• Eat mostly meat with some plants as well (e.g., dogs, foxes)

Insectivores

• Eat primarily insects (e.g., frogs, anteaters, hedgehogs)

Piscivores

• Specialize in eating fish (e.g., penguins, otters, herons)

Scavengers

• They eat dead animals instead of a live prey (e.g., vultures, hyenas)

Omnivores

• Consume both plants and animals (e.g., human, bears)

Ecosystem Processes

Producers

• Plants are producers that make their own food with sunlight

Consumers

• Animals consume other organisms for food

Primary Consumers

• They are herbivores that eat plants

Secondary Consumers

• Carnivores eat the herbivores

Tertiary Consumers

• Eat other carnivores

Decomposers

• (Bacteria, fungi) break down from the matter to give nutrients back to the ecosystem

Efficiency In a Food-chain

• Transference of energy is inefficient
• Higher-level consumers have to consume more to obtain enough energy

Module 4: Basics of Gas Exchange

Respiration

• Living things use oxygen and release carbon dioxide

Necessities for gas exchange efficiency

• Needs to be large, thin, moist
• Rate of diffusion is proportional to the area, and un-proportional to the distance traveled
• Organisms have evolutions and adaptations

Where Exchanges Take Place

Gills

• Aquatic Animals
• Body surface with ventilation for good exchange

Tracheal

• Insects
• Tubes for oxygen directly to cells

Lungs

• Vertebrates
• Internal organs with oxygen transported

Leaves

• Plants
• Uses the high surface area to hold the oxygen
• Exchange happens with stomata, air-pockets

Mammalian Breathing Processes

The Pathway

• Nostrils to filter, warm
• Pharynx to the the larynx, voice box with epiglottis
• Trachea
• Bronchi
• Bronchioles

the exchange

• the alveoli for the gas exchange, using surface area

protection

• Lining protection with moving cilia, expelling what does not belong
• White-blood cells patrol and clean what needs cleaning

Animal vs Plant Gas Exchange Interdependence

• Plants produce oxygen, used by animals, and v/v

Organism Circulation

Diffusion

• Simple organisms

Complex Systems

• Circulatory

Fluid Types

• Blood
• Hemolymph

Vessel Types

• Arteries
• Veins
• Capillaries

System Types

• Open, sinuses
• Closed, branch types

One vs Two Heart Chambers

• One Atrium and ventricle
• Two artria and ventricles for right or left side pulmonary circit

Components of What is In The Circulatory Vessels

• Contains plasma with ions and proteins
• Contains specialized cells such as:
  • Red which carry oxygen
  • White to defend
  • Platelets to help

Plant Transport

• Xylem
• Pholem

O2 Transport

Binding

• Hemoglobin

Where To

• Systemic circulation

Co2 Transport

• Dissolved P
• To Hemogloben C
• To 70 percent bicarbonate

Basic Systems

Inhale

• Nos to lung, to alveo

Heart Components & Functions

Main Components

• Alve, pump bl, to tissues

Functions

• Hemoglobin O delivers, Co2 returns, lung via arteries

Vertebrate Pigments

• Hemoglobin (Hb) to carry, with Fe.

Environmental Factors

• Bohr effects
  • Co2 loweers PH release

Lung Support

• Diet and exercise
• Ventilation
• Reduce stress

Takeaway points:

• All system in tandem
• Lungs through diffusion with partial gradients
• Consereve
• Efficiency and Support

Importance

• Stomata for sunlight, C03 intake

What is the Function of The Open and Close?

1. Light, water, influx
2. C02 depletion to open
3. Daily cylces

Plant responses to low H20

Xerophytes or modified leaves D Acid- produce roots during d routes

Osmoregulation

1. Homeo, and water

Osmoreguation in 1 or 2 Types?

1. What ions needed for f muscle? 1
2. Remove Nitro compounds
3. Water balance h > l
4. 3 SOLUTE
5. TYPES 6.Maintain and fluid 7.Ex marine

Osmoregulatrs

1 Internal fl 2 Marine 3 FRESH WATER (water ent, and, )

Terrestrial

H20 by urine feces sweat

What occurs Steps

1. Filt Press small, sol

2. Re absorb, re

3. Sac NON ESS, wastes

4. Exist process

5. Mal with bulbs for functions

6. Kinds Main organ for verte

7. Reab with urine, bladder uretha

Waste

1. Main w amon, HIGHLY Toxic
2. Urea less tox

What and and HO

1. Homonal antidiuretc etc A. F resh water with, body absorbs water with no d water

System Functions

1. Vascular
2. To light touch and a. Glands, send

• To muscles to glands

1. 3 types rec sen moto to cells 70mv. HORMONE> peptides to

Link, Brain,

The Main Concept Notes

The What, and Functions

Hormones

1. Vascular S

• Response

Main Processes?

• Photmorphnesis Etc

Defense

• P defenses- throns, and enzymes