Andrade Doodling Study

Andrade (Doodling) Study (2009)

• The study investigated if doodling helps concentration and memory during a boring task.
• It was a laboratory experiment using an independent measures design.
• Forty participants, mainly women aged 18-55, from a previous study were recruited.
• Participants were randomly assigned to a doodling or control (no doodling) group.
• Participants listened to a 2.5-minute monotonous phone message listing party attendees' names.
• The primary task was to monitor and recall the names of party attendees.
• The doodling group shaded shapes while listening, allowing them to doodle freely.
• Participants had a surprise memory test that included a names test (attendees’ names recall) and an incidental memory test (places mentioned recall).
• The doodling group recalled more names (mean 7.8) than the control group (mean 7.1).
• The doodling group recalled more overall information (names + places)
• Doodling improves focus by preventing mind-wandering, leading to better memory retention.
• Strengths include high control, practical application, and reduction of demand characteristics.
• Weaknesses include low ecological validity, ethical issues (deception), and sample bias.
• Doodling can enhance cognitive performance by improving attention and reducing boredom.

Baron-Cohen et al. (Eyes Test) Study (2001)

• The study investigated whether individuals with ASD have difficulty recognizing emotions from facial expressions, particularly the eyes.
• It was a Quasi-experiment with a matched pairs design.
• 122 adults were split into four groups: ASD, general population, high IQ control, and Cambridge students.
• Participants completed the Revised Eyes Test, which involved looking at 36 black-and-white images of eyes and choosing the correct emotion from four options.
• The ASD group's results were compared with the other groups and basic face recognition ability was checked.
• The ASD group scored significantly lower (mean 16.3/36) than the control groups (around 20-30).
• There were no significant gender differences in performance.
• Cambridge students scored highest, suggesting intelligence alone doesn’t explain emotion recognition ability.
• Individuals with ASD struggle with Theory of Mind (understanding others’ mental states).
• The Eyes Test is a valid measure of social cognition.
• Strengths include a standardized procedure, supports Theory of Mind deficits in ASD, and improved test reliability.
• Weaknesses include low ecological validity, cultural bias, and a ceiling effect.
• People with autism struggle with recognizing emotions, reinforcing the importance of social cognition in ASD research.

Saavedra & Silverman (2002) – Button Phobia Study

• The study explored the role of disgust in the development and maintenance of phobias.
• Disgust and fear together can make phobias more complex and harder to treat.
• The study distinguished between expectancy learning that is conditioned by fear and evaluative learning which is conditioned by disgust.
• The study examined the role of disgust and evaluative learning in the development and maintenance of a phobia.
• The study tested whether exposure therapy targeting disgust can treat a phobia when fear-focused approaches are ineffective.
• The research design was a case study.
• One 9-year-old Hispanic-American boy was the sample
• The 9-year-old boy was diagnosed with a specific phobia of buttons.
• Qualitative and quantitative data were gathered through interviews and distress ratings.
• Interviews were conducted with the boy and his mother for background information.
• Distress related to the boy's phobia was measured with a "Feelings Thermometer"
• Least distressing buttons were large denim buttons rating a 2.
• Most distressing buttons were small clear plastic buttons rating an 8.
• The 9 year old was given Behavior Exposure treatment and Imagery Exposure treatment
• Behavioral Exposure Therapy consisted of 4 sessions.
• Imagery Exposure Therapy consisted of 7 sessions.
• Follow up assessments were conducted at 6 and 12 months post-treatment.
• Behavioral exposure alone did not reduce disgust and may have reinforced anxiety.
• There was a significant improvement in distress levels after Imagery Exposure Therapy.
• Imagining buttons falling on him, distress dropped from 8 to 3.
• Imagining hugging his mother while she wore buttons, distress dropped from 7 to 4.
• Buttons were described by the boy as "disgusting" and "gross".
• Minimal distress about buttons at follow-up assessments
• The phobia was no longer present at follow-up assessments
• After treatment the boy was able to wear clothes with buttons, including his uniform, without distress.
• Disgust is important in the maintenance of phobias
• Exposure therapy and cognitive restructuring successfully reduced disgust-based phobia.
• Treatment focusing on disgust reduction can be effective for certain phobias.
• Ethical considerations include informed consent, confidentiality, protection from harm, and possible distress.
• Strengths include in-depth data collection, new focus on disgust and longitudinal design, and ecological validity.
• Weaknesses include limited generalizability, no control group, and subjective measures.
• Schools could use rating scales like the Feelings Thermometer to help children understand emotions.
• The phobia developed due to a learned experience, but some may be biologically predisposed to strong disgust responses.
• The boy’s personal interpretation of the button incident contributed to his phobia, intensified by the public setting.
• The study isolated disgust as the key factor but considered the interaction of fear and disgust.

Pozzulo et al. (Eyewitness Identification & Lineups)

• The study investigated how well children and adults identify suspects and whether sequential or simultaneous lineups improve accuracy.
• Participants of different age groups (children and adults) were shown a target individual and later asked to identify them from a lineup.
• A simultaneous lineup is when all lineup members are shown at once.
• A sequential lineup is when lineup members are shown one at a time.
• Adults were more accurate than children in identifying suspects.
• Sequential lineups led to fewer false identifications compared to simultaneous lineups, especially for children.
• Children were more likely to guess in simultaneous lineups rather than admit they didn’t know.
• Children are more vulnerable to errors in eyewitness identification.
• Sequential lineups reduce false identifications, making them a better method for legal settings.
• Strengths include real-world applications in forensic psychology and support for using sequential lineups.
• Weaknesses include low ecological validity and the children’s memory & confidence could be affected by external factors.

Hölzel et al. (Mindfulness & Brain Changes)

• The study examined whether an 8-week Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program leads to structural brain changes related to emotion and stress regulation.
• MRI scans were taken before and after the MBSR program.
• Participants practiced meditation and mindfulness exercises daily.
• There was Increased grey matter density in the hippocampus (memory & learning) and posterior cingulate cortex (self-awareness & attention).
• Decreased amygdala activity, for better emotional regulation.
• Mindfulness meditation physically changes the brain, reducing stress and improving emotional regulation.
• Supports mindfulness-based therapies for anxiety and depression.
• Strengths include objective measures (MRI scans) and a longitudinal study.
• Weaknesses include a small sample size and no control group for comparison.

Hassett et al. (Toy Preferences in Monkeys & Gender Differences)

• The study examined whether male and female monkeys show different toy preferences, like human children.
• Rhesus monkeys were given masculine (wheeled vehicles) and feminine (plush dolls) toys.
• Their interactions with each toy were recorded.
• Male monkeys preferred wheeled toys.
• Female monkeys played with both wheeled and plush toys.
• The toy preference pattern mirrors gender-based toy preferences seen in human children.
• Biological factors (e.g., hormones) may influence toy preferences, rather than just social learning.
• Strengths include supports evolutionary explanations for gender differences and avoids human cultural bias.
• Weaknesses include unable to fully generalize monkey behavior to humans and cannot rule out social influences in humans.

Perry et al. (Childhood Trauma & Brain Development)

• The study investigated the effects of childhood abuse and neglect on brain development.
• The study used brain scans of children exposed to trauma and compared brain activity and structure with non-abused children.
• Neglected children had reduced brain volume in the cortex (decision-making) and hippocampus (memory).
• There was an overactivity in the amygdala leading to increased fear responses.
• Early trauma leads to long-term changes in brain structure and function, affecting emotional regulation and cognitive ability.
• Strengths include strong evidence using brain scans and highlights the importance of early intervention.
• Weaknesses include that cause-and-effect cannot be determined and ethical concerns in studying traumatized children.

Bandura et al. (Bobo Doll Study & Social Learning Theory)

• The study investigated whether children learn aggression through observing and imitating role models.
• Children watched an adult behaving aggressively or non-aggressively toward a Bobo doll.
• The children were later placed in a room with toys, including a Bobo doll.
• Children who saw aggressive models were more aggressive, often mimicking specific behaviors.
• Boys showed more aggression than girls, especially if the model was male.
• Aggression can be learned through observation, supporting Social Learning Theory.
• Children imitate same-sex models more often.
• Strengths include strong experimental control and supports real-world applications (e.g., media influence on aggression).
• Weaknesses include ethical issues (exposure to aggression) and lacks long-term follow-up.

Dement & Kleitman (Sleep & Dreaming)

• The study investigated the relationship between REM sleep and dreaming.
• Participants slept in a sleep lab with electrodes measuring brain activity (EEG).
• They were woken during different sleep stages and asked about their dreams.
• REM sleep was strongly associated with dreaming.
• Eye movements during REM matched dream content (e.g., horizontal eye movement = watching a tennis match in a dream).
• REM sleep is the biological basis of dreaming.
• Strengths include objective measures (EEG) and supports sleep cycle theories.
• Weaknesses include an artificial setting may affect sleep quality and has a small sample size.

Piliavin et al. (Subway Helping Study & Bystander Effect)

• The study investigated factors affecting helping behavior in an emergency situation.
• The research was conducted by staging an emergency on a subway.
• A victim collapsed, either appearing drunk or disabled with a cane.
• Observers recorded how quickly passengers helped.
• The cane victim was helped faster & more often than the drunk victim.
• Men were more likely to help than women.
• There was no diffusion of responsibility in a confined space, unlike previous studies.
• People are more likely to help when a victim seems deserving (e.g., physically disabled vs. drunk).
• Strengths include high ecological validity and challenges previous bystander effect studies.
• Weaknesses include ethical concerns of deception and distress to participants.

Fagen et al. (Conditioning in Elephants)

• The study investigated how elephants learn behaviors through classical and operant conditioning in captivity.
• They observed young elephants in a controlled environment.
• Trainers used positive and negative reinforcement to teach behaviors.
• The researchers studied how quickly elephants learned and retained conditioned behaviors.
• Elephants learned behaviors through reinforcement, similar to other animals.
• Social learning played a role with younger elephants copying behaviors from older ones.
• Conditioning influenced elephant-human interactions, improving cooperation in training.
• Elephants learn through both direct reinforcement and social learning.
• Operant conditioning is effective for training elephants in conservation and captivity settings.
• Strengths include real-world applications in elephant conservation & training and supports behaviorist learning theories.
• Weaknesses include ethical concerns regarding reinforcement methods in training and it hard to generalize findings to wild elephants.