Ancient Rome: Republic and Empire

The Founding of Rome: Settlers and Geography

• Rome provided access to water, fertile lands, trade and defense via its location on the Tiber River in central Italy.
• Favorable Mediterranean climate allowed the Romans to grow wheat, grapes, and olives
• Rome was founded on seven hills.

Legendary Foundation

• According to myth, Rome was founded by twin brothers Romulus and Remus.
• Romulus killed Remus and became the first King.

The Latins

• The earliest settlers of Rome came from the Latin tribe.
• They lived in small villages in the area known as Latium.
• Latium later became the heart of Roman Civilization

The Etruscans

• Before becoming a republic, Rome was ruled by Etruscan Kings.
• The Etruscans had a profound influence on early Roman Culture, including religion, architecture (like the arch), and government.

The Influence of Surrounding Cultures

• As Rome grew, it came into contact with Greek colonies in the south of Italy.
• The Greeks influenced Rome in various areas, including art, relgion and architecture.
• The Tiber River provided water for agriculture acting as a natural trade route and allowing Rome to establish trade connections with other civilizations through the Mediterranean Sea.

Early Roman Society and Structure

• Rome began as a small settlement on the Palatine Hill (one of the seven hills) but expanded by incorporating neighboring villages.
• Early Romans lived in small communities with a focus on family and religion.
• Social Hierarchy was important

Strategic Location

• Rome's location on the Italian Peninsula was strategically advantageous.
• It was positioned far enough inland to avoid constant threats from sea-based invasions but still had access to important trade routes, allowing it to expand across the Mediterranean.
• The Italian Peninsula gave Rome access to both northern Europe and the Meditteranean World.

Early Development of Rome

• Rome's early leaders and settlers emphasized military prowess and alliance-building
• Around 509 BCE, the Romans had overthrown their Etruscan kings and established a republic

The Roman Republic (509 BCE - 27 BCE)

• The Roman Republic was established after the overthrow of the last Estruscan King, Tarquin the Proud, in 509 BCE and used a system of checks and balances.

Key Institutions of the Roman Republic

The Senate

• The Senate was the central institution of Roman Government.
• It was initially comprised of 300 members from the Partician Class (aristocratic families, but over time plebians (commoners) gained more authority through it).
• The Senate had power in decision making, particularly in foreign policy, financial matters, and military affairs.
• Senators were appointed for life ensuring continuity and experience in governance.
• During times of crisis the Senate could appoint a dictator (a magistrate with supreme authority for up to 6 months) to handle urgent matters.

The Magistrates

• Rome was governed by two consuls who were elected annually and held executive power.
• They commanded the army, resided over the Senate and assemblies and enforced laws.
• Consuls had the power of veto over each other's decisions.
• Praetors were judicial officers who administered justice and acted as commanders in war when consuls were unavaliable.
• Censors: responsible for conducting the census and overseeing public morals and could also remove senators.
• Aediles were in charge of public buildings, markets and festivals
• Quaestors handled financial and administrative duties.

Assemblies

• The Roman Republic had several popular assemblies where citizens voted on laws, elected magistrates, and made important decisions.

• Curiate Assembly: oldest Assembly in Rome but primarily a symbolic body by the republic era.

• It originally elected consuls and approving laws.

• The Assembly was divided into 30 curiae each representing segments of society.

• Held the power to grant military authority to elected magistrates.

• Centuriate Assembly: The most important assembly in terms of military and political decisions, organized by centuries based on wealth and social class.

• The wealthier citizens were given more voting power.

• Elected consuls, praetors and other ranking officials.

• Responsible for approving laws related to war and the military, including capital punishment sentences.

• Tribal Assembly: Composed of all Roman citizens grouped by tribe rather than wealth or class.

• Each tribe had an equal vote.

• Elected low ranking magistrates, like quaestors and aediles, passed laws, and had a say on issues affecting the Roman peole, such as distribution.

• Plebeian Council (Concillium Plebis)

• Represented the common people (plebians) of Rome allowing them to elect tribunes.

• Tribunes could veto decisions from consuls and Senate protecting the rights of plebians.

• Pass laws (plebiscites) that applied to plebians.

• Later these became binding for Romans

The Roman Constitution

• The Roman Constitution was an unwritten system of laws and principles that governed the Republic.
• It consisted of customs traditions and precedents rather than a single written document.
• Checks and balances: the political structure of the republic included checks and balances to prevent any individual or group from gaining too much power.

The Role of the Dictator

• A dictator was appointed in times of extreme crisis (like war) for a 6 month term, granting absolute power and expected to step down once crisis was over.
• The most famous example is Cincinnatus, who resigned once his task was complete.

Social Classes in the Roman Republic

• Particians: The aristocratic class, who held the most political power and the land.
• Plebians: The common people.
• Equestrians: Class of wealthy individual originally part of the calvary but were later involved in business and administration.

Key Concepts of the Roman Republic

• Imperium: Power held by magistrates, particularly consuls and praetors, to command army and make decisions in war.
• Veto: Ability of a magistrate to block the decisions of another.
• Client-Patron System: A social system where wealthy Romans (patrons) provided protection and financial support to lower class citizens (clients) who returned support in political and legal manners.

The Punic Wars (264 BCE - 146 BCE)

• The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage and determined the future of the Western Mediterranean.

First Punic War (264-241 BCE)

• The conflict arose from a struggle for dominance in the western Mediterranean, particularly over Sicily.
• Rome and Carthage's interest collided over control of Sicily.
• The battle of Mylae in 260 BCE delivered the Romans their first victory at sea
• The battle of Ecnomus in 256 BCE resulted in a Roman naval victory of the coast of Africa allowing the invasion of Carthage
• Battle of the Aegates Islands: The final major naval battle, led to Roman victory
• Rome gained control of Sicily
• Carthage was forced to give up Sicily and pay a large indemnity
• This war marked the beginning of Rome's expansion outside the Italian Peninsula

Second Punic War (218 - 201 BCE)

• Largely triggered by Hannibal Barca, who thought to avenge his father's defeat.
• Hannibal's Crossing of the Alps in 218 BCE allowed the invasion of Italy.
• Battle of Cannae was a devastating loss for Rome
• After the defeat at Cannae, the Romans adopted a strategy of delay and attrition, led by Fabius Maximus which prevented further loses.
• Scipio africanus successfully defeated Hannibal in North Africa in 202 BCE at the Battle of Zama.
• Resulted in a Roman victory solidifiying its position as power in the west Mediterranean
• Carthage had to pay a large indemnity and give up its territories in Africa
• Carthage's power was weakened and Rome gained control of parts of Spain

Third Punic War (149-146 BCE)

• Rome feared Carthage's revival after the Second Punic War and sought its final elimination.
• Siege of Carthage (149-146 BCE): The Romans, led by Scipio Aemilianus, besieged Carthage and closed in.
• The Carthiginian population was either killed, sold into slavery or the town was burnt to the ground.
• Complete destruction of Carthage
• Rome annexed Carthaginian territory.
• Solidiifed Rome's dominance in the western Meditteranean

Consequences of the Punic Wars

• The punic wars transformed Rome to a leading power in the Meditteranean
• The fall of Carthage removed a rival providing Rome more wealth resources and influence
• The Punic Wars allowed Rome to expand into Spain, North Africa and the eastern Meditteranean
• Significant economic shifts occurred due to an increase in slaves, the infux of wealth, and powerful elite
• The punic wars contributed to Roman devlopments in military tactics and politics

Internal Conflicts in the ROman Republic

• Internal conflicts plagued the Roman Republic ultimately leading to the fall and the rise of the Roman Empire
• Key figures include the Gracchi brothers, Spartacus, Gaius Marius, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, and Julius Ceasar

The Gracchi Brothers (133 - 121 BCE)

• Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus were Roman brothers attempting to address inequality
• Tiberius elected Tribune of the Plebs proposed land reforms aimed at redistributing public land to poor, landless citizens.
• Tiberius Reform angered Senators and was eventually murdered by senators in 133 BCE
• Gaius expanded on the reforms proposing land redistribution, grain subsidies, and legal rigths to Italian allies.
• Gaius became increasingly popular with plebians but was eventually killed in 121 BCE during a violent conflict with the Senate.
• The Gracchi's brothers' revealed deep divides and the breakdown of the ROman Republic
• Their deaths sparked era of plitical strife and set precedant for use of violence in politics

The Spartacus Rebellion (73-71 BCE)

• Spartacus was a Thracian gladiator led a slave revolt against the Roman Republic in the Third Servile war involving thousands of slaves and gladiators
• Spartacus won several battles growing revolt of slaves
• Crassus defeated Spartacus and forces and the surviving rebels were crucified.
• It exposed Rome's vulnerability with tensions between the lower and elite classes and the rise of powerful generals like Crassus

Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla

• Gaius Marius helped the consulship an unprecedented times.
• Known for military reforms
• Lucius Cornelius Sulla was a senator and general who had a rivalry with Marius.
• Marius allowed landless, poor Romans to join army creating a professional military force
• This force became loyal to the generals rather than the senate changing the power dynamics in Rome
• Conflict between Marius and Sulla erupted over command of the army for the Mithrandatic war leading to the Civil war in 88-88 BCE.
• Conflict ended in Sulla's victory

Julius Caesar and the First Triumvirte (60 BCE)

• Julius Caesar, Pompey and Crassus formed the First Triumvirate in 60 BCE designed to consolidate power and circumvent the Senate.
• Ceasar's military success in Gaul earned great success in his military campaigns
• Ceasar crossed the Rubicon River defying the Senate and Pompey
• Resulting in a Civil war leading to Ceasar defeating Pompey in the Battle of Pharsalus and becoming the leader of Rome
• Ceasar was appointed dictator for life however, his assignation leading to conflicts.

The Second Triumvirante

• The second triumvirate (43 BCE) was formed by Octavian, Mark Anthony, and Lepidus
• Triumvirs sought to eliminate Ceasar's assassins particularly Brutus and Crassius at the battle of Phillipi
• The second triumviratte led to tension beween Octavian and Anthony with Anthony's relationship with Cleopatra being the source of rivalry
• It ended in the Batlle of Actium where Octavian defeated Anthony and Cleopatra
• Octavian becoming first Roman Emperor adopting title of Augustus and ending ROman Republic

Consequences of the Civil Wars

• Resulted in decline of the replublican institutions
• The roman empire came to power eventually
• Generals like Ceasar, Pompey, and Anthony used personal armies to seize power
• From the deaths of Gracchi brothers to proscriptions under Sulla and the eventual rise of the Empororer leading to political violence

Augustus Ceasar and the Pax Romana (27 BCE - 14CE)

• Augustus (formerly Octavian) became first emperor after Julius Ceasar and the defeat of Mark Anthony and Cleopatra in the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE Augustus took title of Princepus and system of governemnt was technically a empire.
• It included the reorganization of government, expansion, and the creation of the golden age of literature
• The Pax Romana was a 200 year period of relative peace and stability

The Julio-Claudian Dynasty (14-68CE)

• The Julio-Claudian dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of Rome and emperors were related to Augustus
• Tiberius was the step Son of Augustus and was an effective military leader
• Caligula was known as his extreme cruelty and erratic behaviour
• Claudius was a more competent emperor who expanded the empire by concurring Britain.
• Nero began with relative peace and prosperiry but ended in chaos

The Flavian Dynasty (169-96 CE)

• The Flavian Dynasty followed the year of the Emperors and brought stabillilty with Vespasian the first Flavian Emperor.
• Vespasian restoed stability and began extensive public works projects like constructing the Colosseum
• Titus is remembered for handling the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE and the destruction of Pompeii
• Domitian reigned with strong centralizaiton and military however, also characterized w tyranny

The Five Good Emperors (96-180 Ce)

• The five good Emperors were characterized by peace, prosperity, and good governance
• Nerva restored respect for the Senate and adopted Trajan as his successor.
• Trajan expanded the empire's territory and is remembered for social welfare programs
• Hadrian consolidated and secured the empire and Hadrian's wall in Britain.
• Antonius Pius promoted peace and stabillity
• Marcus Aurelius best known for his work Meditations
• his death marked th end of the Pax Romana

The End of the Pax Romana and Power Struggles

• The end of the Pax ROmana began when Marcus Aurelius died in 180 CE
• The COmmodous was a corrupt ruler marking beginning of instability
• There were frequent instabilities in power over the empire
• The economy suffered due to continuous warfare
• The empire faced invasions, internal revolts, and the Gothic wars

The Coming to power of Diocletion and Constantine

• Diocletion and Constantine played pivotal roles in structuring the empire.
• Diocletion enacted changes to the empire splitting tetarchry into 4 and economic reforms to try and address the price controls.
• Constatine is known for Christianity becoming the dominant religion
• Constatine founded the City of Constantinople leading to East to Christian power and trade.

The Fall of Roman Empire and Its legacy To HUmanity

• Fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE marking the end of the vest civilisation
• The Byzantine Empire persisted for 1000 years until its fallin 1453
• Political instability and corruption
• Weack leadership, civil wars and division of emperors within the empire
• Economic decline, heavy taxation, inflation in trade and military problems and berberian invasions
• There was a decline in Civic virtue to Roman vaues eroding and rise to Christianity
• The legacy of the Roman Emperor continues to shape modern civilisation in numerous ways: legal system and governance, infrastructure architecture, and Cultural contributions.

Constantine and the Battle of Milvian Bridge (312 CE)

• The most significant turning point for Christianity came with Emperor Constantine
• In 312 CE he reported seeing a Chi-Ro before his battle on the Milvian Bridge seeing vision "in sign you will conquer"
• This led him embrace Chrsitianity including issing the Edict of Milan in 313 CE
• The edict granted religious tolerance ending persicution

Council of Nicaea (325 CE)

• The great schism refers to formal split between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church in 1054 CE
• The church sought to bring Christianity through division as a unifiying force in the early church in 325 CE at the council of Nicaea
• The great schism refers to formal split between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church in 1054 CE

The Great Schism and divison of christianity

• As Christianity spread the church began to grow in both the East and West growing tensions
• The Bishop of Rome claimed Supremacy over all over Christians while Eastern Church was led by the Pariarch
• Regions show differences in theology, and litrugy contributring division

The Spread and Influence of Christianity

• In 380 CE, Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official state religion via the Edict of Thessalonica
• In the 5th century this had become deeply intergrated into the Roman Empire
• The Western Roman Empire declined and in 476 CE the Chrsitian church bacame a unifiying force
• Chrisitanity helped spread monotheism, churches became political and Cultural insitituions, The church's influence was exentded to feudalim

Early Middle Ages: The Frankish Kingdoms, Movingian and Carolingian Dynasties, and Charlegmagne

• The Early Middle Ages (approximately 500–1000 CE) were marked by the transformation of the Western Roman Empire into a series of fragmented kingdoms
• Rise of the Franks, A Germanic tribe that dominated much of Western Europe laying foundations for the Roman Empire

The Merovingian Dynasty

• The Franks were Germatic tribes in what was the Western Roman Empires province of Gaul
• Merovingian was the first Frankish Dynasty founding Clonis I who united much of the Frankish tribes which connected the franking monarchy and the Chrisitna CHurch

The Carolingian Dynasty

• By the 7th century the kings of the Merovingian dynasty were seen as efeective as real power shifted
• Caroligin dynasty rose in teh 8th centruy with Charless Martel taking control of the frankish kingdom
• Charless Martel halted muslim advance into Europe at battle tours
• Pepin Short became the first Carolingin King and Pepin deposed the last Merovingian king

Charlegmagne

• Charlegmagne was son of Pepin the Short taking over much of territory uniting the Holy Roman Empire
• Charlemange expanded the empire significantlty
• The charlegmagne empire is a revivial, and the churhc was influential
• Charlemange and instituted local lords and the empire marked sighficnant achievements

FEUDALISM AND THE MANOR SYSTEM

• Developed in the fall of western empire with lords providing service and loyalty

Key Feauture of Feudalism

Lords and Vassals

• Lords controooed land granting fiefs to vasalls military service.
• oaths of fealty formalized relationships

fiefs/Land ownership

• most important
• ex land and villages

serfs/pensants

• lowest class with lords preoviding right and protection

The Manor System

• villages, farmland, forests, pastures

village Peasants

• performed jobs

The Lords Domain

• most land controlled by the lord

Economy

• self sufficent farmnming
• Role Christian CHurch in Feudalism

Growth of Papl Power

papal autority

• over time the churches influence had authority shaping decisions

Papal States

• In the 8th century the pope gained lands controlling more power in Italy

monostacism

• The monastic movement involved the establishment of monasteries and convents, where monks and nuns lived a life of religious devotion, prayer, and work.

Cistercian

• focused on benedectine rules and were active in teaching
• churchs influence to kingdom with lords donating lands Church
• Peasants paid tithes to church creating influence to church

Interdiction

• was used to prevent sacraments from happening for leverage

####struggle for authority

• the power sttruggle for suprememcy involved played out w sides wanting power

High Middle Ages

• Investiture controvery was the Monarch to choose clergy to support

Decline of Fuildaism

Centrailuzed monrachies

• as monarchs grew in power local diminished

gworth of town

• towns weakened control

revlots

• peasant led to unrest

black dealth

• huge impact and higher wages

Decline of Fludalsim

expansion roots

• expansion routes, led trade

4. Rice of bourgeuisie

Class) Bourgeoisie

• emerged more in urban trade leading to impact
• The bourgeoisie were often able to buy land or titles from the nobility

economy

• influence and new places.
• Bourget helhed create of money.
• Causes lead change
• to pope, relciou wars
• crusades help led cultural knowledge
• power, which help influence

science culture review

The age

• lead schools
• techinilc changes in middle ages
• windmill watermills, clocks
• the worlds ideas change
• medical tech, and others

The End middle ages

• was affect by society
• the decline came to rise in society change.

Economic social class

• had many factor
• and changes with taxes, trade, and peasant power

The Decline of plague

• disease
• labour
• religion
• high waves

crisis of padancy and great schism

• great shism created new change ####Hundred year war
• led long with many issue.

End Middle Ages

• ended with new age of euorpe for reniasianes for centuiure
• Reni assance led new society for centuiures was cultural.

Economic impetus behind the renaissance

• renaisaince and power
• wealth of status

Medici Influence

• Medici family the best artists
• The rise of the merchant Class: With the growth of trade and commerce, a new class of merchants and bankers

dominance philopeis of time

A humanisic

• humanistic education and pursuit

secuiarlism

• worldly time

Individualism

• celebrated personal achievement and new time

the reniacsne 13s in Italys

Renaissance spread

• Italy

Legacy

• The Renaissance had a profound impact on Western civilization Renaissanve ideas influenced European culture.
• literature

printing with Gutenberg helped rapid spread of ideas

Protestant reoffimation and religcous crisis Martin Luther

Martin Luther was an

• and leader protesting thesis solas scripture

justify of a;I; beelivers

Luther;s used wdespreing thahk to o rpeotest formers.

religoous class peasanr

• new belifes Cathloic thgought to The scientific revialt
• change

Nicolas Copernis

• heliocentric theory The scientific revolution
• Galileo supported

Newton woirk

• law laid foundation The scinetifuc shifted from empiral study Thre prostan reformation in Europe Prostan reformation chnage calihlic Counter-Reformation for protnesamrs The scliefic challlen

Age Exploataion

• economic time was driven by desie for glory, curiosity Search New for new

• valuable from areas.

• Compete new times in power led engalns.

• desire for gkrty came to light due to honor.

• economic factors. Wasco found India in 1498

• • cabot for endladn

Led new exploration

impact of the age of exploation led global trade led cojnjcalism sociall. And technkloygicvladavnce

Explore the Roman Republic's constitution, social structure, and political systems. Investigate the factors that contributed to the Western Roman Empire's decline, including economic instability and military problems. Understand the impact of key events like the Punic Wars and the division of the empire.