Ancient Rome Overview

Ancient Rome

• Three groups (Latins, Greeks, Etruscans) established communities in the Italian Peninsula between 1000 and 500 BCE.
• Latins, considered the first Romans, settled in Latium along the Tiber River, and were the first to build in Rome's Seven Hills (Palatine Hill).
• Greeks formed colonies in southern Italy and Sicily from around 750-600 BCE.
• Etruscans, from northern Italy, invaded Latium around 650 BCE.
• Etruscan rule over Latium lasted for over a century. The Tarquin family, the most powerful Etruscan clan, brought wealth and size to Rome.
• The Etruscans built the Forum, the centre of Roman political, social, and commercial life.
• Roman alphabet and architectural use of arches were influenced by the Etruscans.
• Romans ousted the last Etruscan king (Tarquin the Proud) in 509 BCE, creating a republic based on elected leaders.

The Roman Republic

• Patricians: Roman nobles, landowners.
• Plebeians: Commoners, farmers, traders, laborers.
• All citizens had voting rights and tax obligations, but initially only patricians could hold government positions.
• The Roman Republic was governed by two consuls, elected to one-year terms.
• Consuls held limited power, could veto each other, and could not serve consecutive terms within ten years.
• The Senate, composed of 300 patricians, created laws and held significant power.
• In emergencies, a dictator held absolute power for six months.
• All land-owning citizens served in the Roman army, organized into legions (6,000 soldiers) and further broken down into centuries.
• Plebeians protested for greater rights in 494 BCE, ultimately gaining rights through the Tribune assembly (10 members initially).
• The creation (451/450 BCE) of the Twelve Tables, a written legal code, further secured plebeian rights.

Expansion of Roman Power

• Punic Wars: Conflicts between Rome and Carthage for control of the Western Mediterranean, particularly Sicily.
  • First Punic War: (264-241 BCE) Rome defeated Carthage; Sicily became Rome's first province outside the Italian peninsula.
  • Second Punic War: (218-202 BCE) Hannibal, a Carthaginian general, led an army across the Alps, achieving a key victory at Cannae. Romans eventually counterattacked under Scipio, defeating Hannibal at Zama. This led to Roman control of Spain.
  • Third Punic War: (149-146 BCE) Rome destroyed Carthage, making it a Roman province.
• Roman influence spread eastward to Macedonia, Greece and parts of Anatolia.
• Republic's decline: The rich-poor gap widened, land ownership became consolidated among wealthy owners (latifundia).

The Reforms and Fall of the Republic

• Gracchi brothers (Tiberius and Gaius) supported reforms to redistribute land and help the poor.
• Civil wars broke out as generals gained loyalty and power through promises of land and money.
• The first triumvirate (Caesar, Crassus, Pompey): a political alliance that briefly stabilized Rome.
• Julius Caesar seized power after defeating Pompey.
• Caesar's reforms prioritized citizen rights, reduced poverty, and improved lives for citizens.
• Caesar was assassinated by senators in 44 BCE, leading to another civil war.
• Second triumvirate (Octavian, Mark Antony, Lepidus).
• Octavian emerged victorious over Antony and Cleopatra, eventually establishing the Roman Empire.

The Roman Empire

• Pax Romana ("Roman Peace"): A 200-year period of peace and prosperity under Augustus.
• Roman Culture and Society:
  • Economic growth and trade flourished.
  • Latin became the official language; Greek was also common.
  • Improved communication and transport (roads, sea routes).
  • Increased freedoms for women; right to vote was not granted.
  • Rich enjoyed formal education (geometry, astronomy, philosophy). Commoners learned basics (reading, writing, arithmetic).
  • Literature flourished (Cicero, Ovid, Virgil, Livy, Tacitus).
  • Public entertainment (gladiator fights, chariot races).
  • Architecture demonstrated skill in design (Colosseum, Circus Maximus, Pantheon, aqueducts, Appian Way).
• Problems leading away from Pax Romana:
  • Succession of emperors proved challenging to establish stable policies.
  • Civil war threatened stability.