Ancient Latin America: Olmecs and Teotihuacan

Ancient Civilizations of Latin America

Olmecs (c. 1200 BCE - 400 BCE)

• The "mother culture" of Mesoamerica, provided a foundation for later civilizations like the Maya and Aztecs
• They are known for colossal head sculptures made from basalt, believed to represent rulers or deities
• Developed one of the earliest Mesoamerican writing systems and a calendar
• The Olmecs built ceremonial centers like La Venta, San Lorenzo, and Tres Zapotes
• Impacted later Mesoamerican civilizations through religious practices, urban planning, and artistic styles

Teotihuacan (c. 100 BCE - 750 CE)

• One of the largest ancient cities in the Americas and located in central Mexico
• This location was home to monumental structures such as the Pyramid of the Sun and Pyramid of the Moon
• They controlled obsidian trade as an economic powerhouse
• Abandoned for unknown reasons, its culture and architectural style influenced the later Aztecs, who revered Teotihuacan as a sacred place

Maya (c. 2000 BCE - 1500s CE)

• Developed a sophisticated writing system (hieroglyphs)
• Achieved significant advancements in mathematics and astronomy
• There was a complex city-state political structure, with major cities like Tikal, Chichen Itza, and Palenque
• Slash-and-burn agriculture and elaborate irrigation systems were used
• Astronomical observations led to the creation of a highly accurate calendar, influencing later civilizations

Toltecs (c. 900 СЕ - 1150 CE)

• Militaristic society that ruled central Mexico from their capital, Tula
• Revered Quetzalcoatl, a deity that was later adopted by the Aztecs
• Warrior culture and architectural styles inspired the Aztecs, who considered them their cultural predecessors

Aztecs (c. 1300s CE - 1521 CE)

• Built Tenochtitlan on Lake Texcoco, featuring chinampas (floating gardens) for agriculture
• The Aztecs established an empire through military conquest and a tribute system
• Human sacrifice was practiced as part of religious ceremonies
• Introduced a highly structured society and an advanced engineering system, the empire fell due to Spanish conquest, internal rebellion, and disease

South American Civilizations

Chimu (c. 900 CE - 1470 CE)

• A powerful kingdom in northern Peru, known for its irrigation systems and goldwork
• Its administrative and engineering techniques were later adopted by the Inca

Inca (c. 1400s CE - 1532 CE)

• Built a vast empire connected by a 25,000-mile road system
• Quipu, a system of knotted cords was used for record-keeping
• Its infrastructure, such as Machu Picchu, continues to be studied for its ingenuity and resilience

Writing Systems

• Maya used Hieroglyphic script, one of the most sophisticated in the Americas
• Aztecs used pictograms and codices for historical records
• Incas used quipu for accounting and administration

Geography

• Mesoamerica's fertile valleys allowed civilizations to flourish
• The Andean region's harsh mountainous terrain required innovations like terrace farming

Civilizations of East and West Africa

East Africa

• Axum (c. 100 CE - 940 CE) was a major trade center and converted to Christianity under King Ezana
• The Ethiopian Orthodox Church is one of the oldest Christian traditions
• The Swahili Coast was a blend of African, Arab, and Islamic cultures due to Indian Ocean trade
• Great Zimbabwe (c. 1100 CE - 1450 CE) is known for its impressive stone ruins
• African kingdoms thrived due to trade, cultural blending, and agricultural advancements

West Africa

• The Ghana Empire (c. 300 CE - 1100 CE) grew wealthy from the gold-salt trade
• The Mali Empire (c. 1235 CE - 1600 CE) was where Mansa Musa expanded trade and established Timbuktu as a center of learning
• Sundiata founded the Mali Empire and strengthened trade networks
• West African empires played a crucial role in global trade and scholarship

Slavery & Social Structures

• Before European contact, indigenous slavery existed, often based on debt or war
• Islam and Christianity mixed with traditional beliefs in religious practices

European Exploration

Portuguese Exploration

• Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460 CE) funded maritime explorations
• Led to European involvement in African trade and colonization

Spanish Exploration

• Columbus (1492 CE) mistakenly reached the Americas while searching for a route to Asia
• Initiated the Columbian Exchange and European colonization

Reconquista Background

• The Spanish expulsion of Muslims from Iberia influenced their approach to New World conquest

European Conquest & Colonization

Spanish Conquest

• Cortés (1519 CE) conquered the Aztecs
• Pizarro (1532 CE) conquered the Inca
• Led to the destruction of indigenous civilizations and the establishment of Spanish rule

Portuguese in Brazil

• Sugar plantations were established relying on enslaved labor
• Brazil became a major producer of sugar, fostering the transatlantic slave trade

Columbian Exchange

• The transfer of goods, ideas, and diseases
• Revolutionized diets and economies worldwide, devastated indigenous populations

Transatlantic Slave Trade

The Atlantic System

• Triangular Trade involved Europe, Africa, and the Americas
• The Middle Passage forcibly transported millions of Africans
• The impact was the forced displacement of millions and the development of economies dependent on slavery

Maroons & Diaspora

• Maroons were communities of escaped enslaved people
• They preserved African traditions and resisted colonial rule

Terms

• Maya: Mesoamerican civilization known for its advanced writing system, calendar, and architectural achievements
  • Impact: Influenced other Mesoamerican cultures with its sophisticated art, mathematics, and astronomical knowledge
• Teotihuacan: An ancient Mesoamerican city-state located in central Mexico, known for its large pyramids and urban planning
  • Impact: Influenced surrounding cultures as one of the largest cities in the ancient world
• Nazca: An ancient civilization in southern Peru, famous for creating the Nazca Lines, massive geoglyphs in the desert
  • Impact: Their art and engineering continue to intrigue modern scholars
• Toltecs: A Mesoamerican civilization preceding the Aztecs, known for their military conquest and influence
  • Impact: Their culture and religion were adopted and adapted by the Aztecs
• Quetzalcoatl: A feathered serpent god worshipped by the Aztecs and other Mesoamerican cultures
  • Impact: Influenced their culture and governance by being central to Aztec religious beliefs and mythology
• Chimu: An ancient civilization from the coastal region of Peru, known for its advanced agricultural techniques and large cities
  • Impact: Left a lasting impact on Inca architecture and farming practices though it was conquered by the Inca Empire
• Aztecs: A Mesoamerican empire that flourished in central Mexico, known for their human sacrifices and military prowess
  • Impact: Its conquest of neighboring states expanded their empire significantly, eventually leading to the fall of Tenochtitlan to the Spanish
• Tenochtitlan: The capital of the Aztec Empire, located on an island in Lake Texcoco (modern-day Mexico City)
  • Impact: Served as a key center for trade, culture, and governance in Mesoamerica before Cortés' conquest as a highly advanced city
• Chinampas: Floating gardens used by the Aztecs for farming in lake areas
  • Impact: Supported large populations in urban centers like Tenochtitlan by allowing for sustainable agricultural practices
• Incas: The largest empire in pre-Columbian America, centered in modern-day Peru, and were known for its road systems, architecture, and centralized government
  • Impact: The Incas were eventually conquered by the Spanish, but their influence on agriculture, governance, and engineering remains significant
• Pachacuti: The Incan emperor who expanded the empire and reorganized its society
  • Impact: Played a crucial role in turning the Inca Empire into a vast and powerful civilization
• Cuzco: The capital of the Inca Empire, located in modern-day Peru
  • Impact: Served as the political, religious, and cultural hub of the Inca Empire
• Quipus: A system of knotted cords used by the Incas to record information
  • Impact: Provided a method of communication and record-keeping in the absence of written language
• Bartolomeu Dias: A Portuguese explorer who was the first to round the southern tip of Africa (Cape of Good Hope)
  • Impact: Opened the route to the Indian Ocean for further Portuguese exploration and trade
• Vasco Da Gama: A Portuguese navigator who was the first to reach India by sea
  • Impact: Revolutionized European commerce by opening maritime trade routes to Asia
• Treaty of Tordesillas: A 1494 agreement between Spain and Portugal, dividing the New World between them
  • Impact: Shaped European colonialism and exploration in the Americas
• Caravel: A small, fast, and maneuverable ship used by the Portuguese and Spanish for exploration
  • Impact: Enabled the Age of Exploration by making long voyages more feasible
• Prince Henry: A Portuguese prince who established a school of navigation and sponsored voyages along the West African coast
  • Impact: Portugal was able to lead early exploration and expansion due to his efforts
• Magellan: A Portuguese explorer whose expedition was the first to circumnavigate the globe
  • Impact: Proved the earth's roundness and opened up global maritime routes
• Columbus: An Italian explorer sponsored by Spain, credited with discovering the Americas in 1492
  • Impact: His voyages initiated the era of European colonization of the Americas
• Kush: An ancient African kingdom located along the Nile River
  • Impact: A powerful kingdom that influenced Egypt and later served as a major player in Africa's early history
• Meroitic: The writing system used by the Kingdom of Meroe in Kush
  • Impact: Provided insight into the culture and governance of ancient Nubia
• Coptic Church: The Christian church in Egypt, which has distinct theological and liturgical traditions
  • Impact: Played a role in the spread of Christianity throughout North Africa
• Aksum: An ancient African kingdom located in modern-day Ethiopia, a major trading empire
  • Impact: Proved to be a significant player in the Red Sea trade and one of the first African kingdoms to adopt Christianity
• Geez: The ancient language of the Kingdom of Aksum
  • Impact: Is still used in Ethiopian Orthodox liturgy and preserves the history of the Aksumite Empire
• Sundiata: The founder of the Mali Empire in West Africa
  • Impact: His reign is seen as the beginning of Mali's golden age, with a focus on trade, culture, and governance
• Mansa: A title used by the rulers of the Mali Empire
  • Impact: The most famous mansa, Mansa Musa, is known for his wealth and his pilgrimage to Mecca, which helped spread Islam
• Mansa Musa: The 14th-century emperor of Mali, renowned for his wealth and his support of Islamic culture
  • Impact: Turned Mali into a powerful cultural and intellectual center through his pilgrimage to Mecca and the development of Timbuktu
• Timbuktu: A city in Mali known for its wealth, education, and trade
  • Impact: Became a global learning center, particularly in Islamic studies, during Mansa Musa's reign
• Swahili: A Bantu language spoken in East Africa, heavily influenced by Arabic
  • Impact: Became the lingua franca of trade along the East African coast
• Great Zimbabwe: A powerful kingdom in southeastern Africa known for its stone ruins
  • Impact: Was a major trade center in Africa during the medieval period
• Ethnic Group: A social group defined by shared cultural traits
  • Impact: Ethnic groups in Africa and the Americas often faced displacement or exploitation due to European colonization
• Oral Traditions/Griots: Oral storytelling traditions in African cultures, with griots serving as historians and storytellers
  • Impact: Preserved history and culture in the absence of written records
• Capitalism: An economic system based on private ownership and free markets
  • Impact: Driven European expansion and colonization through the pursuit of wealth and trade
• Astrolabe: A navigation instrument used to measure the angle of celestial bodies
  • Impact: Enabled sailors to navigate more accurately, enabling long-distance voyages
• Bourgeoisie: The middle class, typically involved in commerce or industry
  • Impact: Gained power during the rise of capitalism and played a role in the growth of European economies
• Commercial Capitalism: An economic system based on trade and the accumulation of capital
  • Impact: Led to the growth of trade networks and fueled European exploration
• Mercantilism: An economic theory that stresses the importance of accumulating wealth, typically in the form of gold and silver
  • Impact: Encouraged European colonization of the Americas and other regions to control resources
• Conquistadors: Spanish and Portuguese soldiers and explorers who conquered vast territories in the Americas
  • Impact: Led to the downfall of native civilizations and the establishment of European colonies
• Cortés: The Spanish conquistador who conquered the Aztec Empire
  • Impact: His conquest of the Aztecs marked the beginning of Spanish dominance in the Americas
• Montezuma II/Moctezuma II: The last Aztec emperor, who was overthrown by Cortés
  • Impact: His downfall symbolized the end of the Aztec Empire
• Atahualpa: The last Inca emperor, captured and executed by Pizarro
  • Impact: His death led to the fall of the Inca Empire
• Pizarro: The Spanish conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire
  • Impact: Contributed to Spain's dominance in South America because of his conquest
• Paulistas: Portuguese settlers from São Paulo who were involved in the exploitation and colonization of Brazil
  • Impact: Played a key role in the expansion of Portuguese Brazil
• Drake: An English explorer and privateer who circumnavigated the globe
  • Impact: Helped establish England as a maritime power
• Columbian Exchange: The exchange of goods, animals, plants, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds
  • Impact: Transformed global agriculture, economies, and populations, often with devastating effects on indigenous peoples
• Audiencias: Spanish courts in colonial Latin America
  • Impact: Ensured Spanish control over the colonies through judicial oversight
• Creoles: People of European descent born in the Americas
  • Impact: Played a key role in the development of colonial societies and eventually led independence movements
• Mestizos: People of mixed European and indigenous descent
  • Impact: Formed a large part of colonial societies, often facing social and economic marginalization
• Mulattos/African Europeans: People of mixed African and European descent
  • Impact: Contributed to the social dynamics in colonial societies, particularly in the Americas
• Peninsulares: Spanish and Portuguese people born in Europe who lived in the colonies
  • Impact: Held the highest positions in colonial societies and governments
• Black Legend: A term referring to the portrayal of Spain's colonial empire as cruel and oppressive
  • Impact: Affected Spain's image and justified some of the critiques of its colonial practices
• Bartolomé de las Casas: A Spanish missionary who advocated for the rights of indigenous peoples
  • Impact: Highlighted the mistreatment of native populations under Spanish colonial rule via his efforts
• Haciendas: Large estates or plantations in colonial Latin America
  • Impact: Played a key role in the colonial economy often relying on indigenous labor
• Encomienda: A system where Spanish settlers were granted land and indigenous labor
  • Impact: Resulted in the exploitation of indigenous peoples
• Monocultures: The cultivation of a single crop over a large area
  • Impact: Caused economic dependency and environmental damage in colonial Latin America
• Plantation Zone: Regions in the Americas where large-scale agricultural estates were established, typically for crops like sugar and tobacco
  • Impact: Contributed to the exploitation of enslaved Africans and indigenous peoples
• Maroons: Enslaved Africans who escaped and formed their own communities
  • Impact: Resisted colonial authority and helped preserve African cultural traditions
• Middle Passage: The forced voyage of enslaved Africans to the Americas
  • Impact: Was a horrific chapter in the history of the transatlantic slave trade, with lasting effects on African and American societies
• Triangular Trade: The transatlantic trading system between Europe, Africa, and the Americas
  • Impact: Facilitated the spread of slavery and the exchange of goods and culture across three continents
• Moche: A pre-Incan civilization in northern Peru known for its art, pottery, and architecture
  • Impact: Their cultural influence spread throughout the Andes region before the rise of the Inca Empire