Ancient India's Astronomy Contributions

Chapter 1: To the World from India

• India's culture has expressed itself in philosophy, spirituality, science, technology, art, music, and dance.
• Ancient India has contributed knowledge in fields like physics, chemistry, logic, astronomy, mathematics, production technology, mechanical engineering, shipbuilding, navigation, architecture, civil engineering, and medical science.

Ancient India's Contribution to Astronomy

• Astronomy has fascinated mankind from the start.
• Early Indian astronomy references can be found in the Rig Veda.
• Important figures in ancient Indian astronomy include Aryabhata and Varahamihira.
• Astronomy is called Khagola-shastra in Indian languages.
• The word Khagola may come from the Khagola astronomical observatory at Nalanda University.
• Nalanda University housed 9 million books and was a center for scholars from across Asia.
• Pillaging invaders burned down Nalanda University in the 11th century.
• The 5th-century astronomer Aryabhata lived at Nalanda University.
• Aryabhata contributed significantly to astronomy and mathematics.
• Aryabhata's text, 'Aryabhattiya,' covers units of time, planetary motion models, planetary longitude corrections, trigonometry for spherical geometry, solar and lunar eclipse prediction, and earth's rotation.
• Aryabhata correctly attributed the luminosity of the Moon and planets to reflected sunlight.
• His discoveries, 1500 years ago, precede Copernicus and Galileo by 1000 years.
• India's first satellite, launched in 1975, was named Aryabhata in his honor.
• Indian astronomers theorized that the earth was a sphere.
• Aryabhata first propounded the theory that the earth was a sphere in the 5th century.
• Brahmagupta, another Indian astronomer, estimated the earth's circumference in the 7th century.
• Brahmagupta estimated the earth's circumference was approximately 36,000 km, close to the actual known circumference.
• An old Sanskrit couplet indicates that ancient Indian astronomers knew the stars were similar to the sun.
• Another couplet suggests understanding that when one sun sets, a thousand rise elsewhere.
• Indian astronomers formulated ideas about gravity and gravitation.
• Brahmagupta (7th century) stated that bodies fall towards the earth due to the earth's nature to attract, like water flows.
• Varahamihira, a century before Brahmagupta, suggested a force keeping bodies stuck to the earth and heavenly bodies in place.
• This shows the existence of an attractive force that governs falling objects and heavenly bodies was recognized.

Ancient India's Contribution to Mathematics

• India is considered to be 'the motherland' of mathematics, with roots in Vedic literature over 4000 years old.
• Between 1000 B.C. and 1000 A.D., Indian mathematicians authored treatises introducing the concept of zero, algebra, algorithm, square root, and cube root.
• Algebra originated in India and was termed Bijaganitam and this technique of computation was discovered more than 1500 years back.
• The Indian mathematician-astronomer Bhaskaracharya authored 'Siddhanta-Shiromani,' including a section called Bijaganitam.
• After the 13th century, the Arabs adapted Indian mathematics, naming it Al-Jabr modifying the term 'Al jabr' into algebra.
• Indian mathematicians contributed to geometry with the Shulba Sutras from the Vedic period.
• The Baudhayana Shulba sutra gives geometric constructions and methods to calculate the square root of 2.
• Geometric area-preserving transformations are described, involving squares, rectangles, trapeziums, triangles, rhombuses and circles transformations are given.
• The sutras discuss and demonstrate cases of the Pythagorean theorem which some suggest should be named the Baudhayana theorem.
• The concept of zero originated in ancient India, where it was not just a numeral but a fundamental concept.
• Inclusion of zero opened up negative numerals.
• In ancient India, zero was indicated by a dot and termed Pujyam and later known as Shubra.
• The Arabs referred to zero as Siphra/Sifr and these terms are the orgins of Cipher or Cypher.
• The concept of 'algorithm' came from India.
• Al Khwarazmi evolved the technique of calculation from Indian sources leading Westerners to name it as Algorismi using the term algorithm in computer science.
• The Arabs borrowed mathematics from India eventually leading the subject of mathematics being called 'Hindsa' meaning 'from India’.
• Much of this knowledge went to Europe through the Arabs.
• Brahmagupta's 'Brahmasphuta-Siddhanta' formulated the rules for zero operations, enabling the decimal system of computation.
• Integration of zero allowed noting higher numerals with limited numerals.
• Only ten numerals can denote all numbers, unlike Roman numerals.
• The decimal system is faster and easier than Roman numeral computation.
• Brahmagupta solved indeterminate equations, founding numerical analysis.
• Brahmagupta's treatise was translated into Arabic as 'Sind Hind'.
• Aryabhata introduced the first 10 decimal places and gave algorithms for finding square and cubic roots using the decimal system.
• Geometric measurements were employed by Aryabhata-employing 62,832/20,000 (= 3.1416) for n-and developed properties of similar right-angled triangles and intersecting circles, also constructing a table of sines.
• Arithmetic and algebraic topics included mathematical series, quadratic equations, compound interest, ratio and proportions, and linear equation solutions.
• Aryabhata's solution of linear indeterminate equations broke the problem into smaller problems with reduced coefficients, similar to the Euclidean algorithm.

Ancient India's Contribution to Physics

• The Indian concept of the atom was developed independently and before its European counterpart.
• The elementary particle of matter was called 'anu' or 'parmanu'.
• Kanada, the first Indian philosopher systematically formulated ideas about the atom in the 6th century B.C.
• Kanada's Vaisheshika-Sutra on atomic theory states the importance the path-breaking conception of the atom.
• Kanada's atomic theory was more advanced than that of the Greek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus.
• Arthur Basham stated the ideas of Indian physicists "were brilliant imaginative explanations of the physical structure of the world, and agreed with modern physics."

Ancient India's Contribution to Chemistry

• There was a parallel development of the atomic concept in physics as well as in chemistry.
• Indian ideas about chemistry grew by experimentation rather than remaining as an abstract idea.
• Areas utilizing chemistry principles were: the smelting of metals, perfume and ointment distillation, making dyes and pigments, and sugar extraction, etc.

Ancient India's Contribution to Metallurgy

• Metallurgy was an important activity that made transition from the Stone Age, to teh Bronze and Iron ages possible.
• Indians proficiently extracted metals from ore and cast metals.
• The Iron Pillar at Delhi, cast in the Gupta period (1500 years ago), is 7.32 meters long and weighs 6 tons.
• The pillar has stood in the open for over a millennium without rusting.
• The rust-proof iron pillar had not been smelted anywhere else in the world.
• Another example is the copper statue of Gautama Buddha in Bihar, which is 2.13 meters high and weighs almost a ton.
• The beautiful stateus of nataraja are a testimony to the excellence in smelting metals achieved in Ancient Idia.
• The ironsmiths who cast the pillar and the statues inherited perfected techniques.
• The Iron Pillar shows that Indian metallurgy and chemistry reached a high stage of perfection more than 1500 years ago.
• Nagarjuna was a practitioner of metal combination.
• Nagarjuna was a chemist who wrote the treatise, Rasaratnakara dealing with preparation of rasa (liquids, mainly mercury).
• Nagarjuna discussed combinations of liquids, surveyed the status of metallurgy in his treatise.
• Methods for extracting and purifying metals like gold, silver, tin, and copper were mentioned in Rasaratnakara.
• The processes of distillation, liquefaction, sublimation, and roasting were mentioned. Nagarjuna discussed the transmutation of base metals into gold.
• Although he could not transmute base metals into gold, he was able to yield metals with gold-like yellowish brilliance.
• These methods are still used to manufacture imitation jewelry.

Ancient India's Contribution to Shipbuilding and Naval Engineering

• A book on shipbuilding from Ancient India is the Yukti Kalpa Taru, compiled by Bhoja Narapati.
• This treatise explains the shipbuilding technique.
• The Yukti Kalpa Taru provides details about the types of ships, their sizes, and building materials.
• The Yukti Kalpa Taru provides the knowledge with date for reference.
• Ancient Indian shipbuilders had a good knowledge of the materials used in building ships.
• The Yukti Kalpa Taru describes the qualities and suitability of different types of wood.
• The Yukti Kalpa Taru classifies ships based on their size and also provides directions for decorating and furnishing ships for passenger comfort.
• Details are mentioned on the ships internal seating and accommodation.
• Indians traveled to Cambodia, Java (Sumatra), Borneo, Japan, China, the Malayan Peninsula and Egypt.
• India cultivated trade relations with the Roman Empire.
• Angkor Wat at Angkor is the largest temple complex dedicated to Lord Vishnu built by Suryavarman II.
• The Maccha Yantra was the ancient Indian mariner's compass used nearly 1500 to 2000 years ago.
• Many commodities and manufactured goods were being exported from India.

Ancient India's Contribution to Medical Science

• Medical Science was a space where amazing advances had been made in ancient times in India.
• Surgery has been practiced since the 8th century B.C. being one of the eight branches of Ayurveda.
• The oldest treatise dealing with surgery in the world is the Shushruta-Samahita (Shushruta's compendium).
• Shusruta, the author of this work, was one of the famous medical practitioners of Ancient India.
• Shushruta was one of the first to study human anatomy and has described in detail the study of anatomy called the Shusruta Samahita.
• Shushruta's specializations included rhinoplasty (plastic surgery) and ophthalmology (ejection of cataracts).
• Shushruta described surgery under eight heads: Chedya (excision), Lekhya (scarification), Vedhya (puncturing), Esya (exploration), Ahrya (extraction), Vsraya (evacuation) and Sivya (stitching).
• Plastic surgery dentistry and operation of cataracts were among the first in India.
• Ayurveda literally means 'the science of living' (longevity) and has roots in the hoary past in India.
• Ayurveda includes accumulated knowledge about diseases, diagnosis, and cure.
• Charaka said that a physician should study a patients enviroment prior to prescribing treatement and it is morre important to prevent the occurence of a disease than to cure it."
• The remarks by Charaka were made in his Ayurvedic treatise Charaka Samahita.
• Charaka was the first physician to present the concept of digestion, metabolism and immunity.
• Herbs used in Ayurvedic remedies do not affect the body's metabolism and have minimal side effects.
• Ayurvedic medicines are largely based on organic matter.

Ancient India's Contribution to Architecture and Art

• The Science of Architecture and Civil Construction was known in Ancient India as Sthapatya-Shastra.
• The word Sthapatya is derived from the root word Sthapana i.e. ''to establish'.
• Architecture technique was both a science and an art known as Sthapatya-kala with the word Kala meaning an art.
• Professional architects known as Sthapati undertook construction of temples, palaces, rest houses and other civil structures and edifices.
• Professionals during the Vedic times were also specialized and undertook the techniquie of constructing chariots and heavy war instrumets.
• These professionals have been referred to in the Rig Veda as Rathakara which literally means ''chariot maker.'
• The excavations at Mohenjodaro and Harrappa show a developed urban civilization in India.
• The Indus valley civilization is dated around 3000 B.C., thus making over 5000 years old.
• The urban civilization presumes developed architecture and construction.
• Most large constructions were temples and rarely used morter but affixed the stones to one another in an exqusite fashion.
• The carving of figurines right must have taken great pains to perform to create an approraite temple carvings.
• Carvings are locatedon roofs of the south Indian temples and doorways.
• The Raja-gopurams rise nearly 90 to 100 ft. and carved varoius figurines depicting gods and goddessess
• Indian techniques of art and architecture spread both westwards and eastwards.
• Afghanistan, Baluchistan and Seistan were part of the Mauryan Empire during Ashoka's reign.
• The destroyed, in Afghanistan, Buddha statue that had been cut out of cliff faces.
• In India, art is integral to life, festivals, ceremonies, heritage, and culture.
• Patrons encouraged specialized artisans for perfection and sophistication, and that lead to the classical art forms.
• Rival kings competed to attract the most renowned artists to their courts.
• India's diverse and ancient history shows itself into the arts amongst the people.
• The roots of Indian paining can be traced back to the people of the Indus Valley civilization and paintings from the same time.
• Considering the tough weather conditions, the paintings of the Ajanta and Ellora caves, have surprisingly, survived for such a long period of time.
• Architectural wonders include temples carved into solid rock, and large structured towers such as that of the Meenakshi Temple.
• Madurai and Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu have cave temples and Monolith carvins done bewteeen the 7th and 8th century.
• The Sun Temple at Konark demonstrates architechtural mastery in the 13th century.

Music and Dance

• In India, life and art are not seperate and music and dance are an integral components of society.
• Music and dance are a basic forms spontaneous expressins across the spectrum of human emotions.
• The names of the Sapta swaras are common knowledge.
• Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Nu Sa are the names of the notes and Syballes not actually full names but shortened versrions.
• The full names of the sapta swaras are shadja, Rishaba, ganghara, madyama, panchama, daivata and nishada.
• Although categorizzed into 7 notes but Sa repeats 10 at the end of eac scale.
• Sa's frequeny at the end of the scale is exactly the double that of the beginning, and at that point the tone sounds higher, an octave..
• At exact halfing of note, in is noted as lower and Octive between range. In indian music a range of three actvies is generally notes.
• Indian music has always carried a spiritual context. And musical instruments associated with diutny eg damuru (shiva).
• Carnatic music is classical system associated with the southern part of the indian continet.
• the basis for carnivatic musuc in the system of ragas. 7 basic taals and eventy tun ragas.
• Three great composers (kriths) of carnatic songs (tyarajaja, multumami, dixitur, and syama) from the 18th century,
• Classical indian dances one of the graaceful aspects of the world. Visual langue of the dancers (gestsures & bod movements)
• lord shivas is said to the the nataraja meaing kiing of dancer who brings balance of life and death.
• The 7 major and world famous dance forms are Bharatanatyam from Tamil Nodu, katakali, the classucal dance drama from kerala & manipulri.
• all adhere to the canons put down in the Natyashtra in the secons conturaty of Bharata. Thisis also the oldest text on all dractric criticism.
• With well nint chapters, Naturesastra covers many aspects of indain art from liuterary constructure to structure to details and many more.
• natyashastra constirs 4 evelments pahtya (text), geotia (song included instrumental), abhiny (acting) and rassoa (asthetic experiance from the altavar Vedda.
• natya stastra laid foundation of indian calsssucak music dances a nd arts of other countries and indian are one and the same.

Sports

• veddas aramya ramayanma mahabaratat men of certain stature wel versed carious and sport like archery swiming hunting.
• the greek olympics are sophisticed vervsion.

Chapter 6: The Vedas: An Overview

• Introduction:

  • The Sanskrit word "vid" means to know.
  • "Veda" may be termed the "Book of Knowledge"
  • The Vedas form the core of Sanatana Dharma.
  • The Vedas are the most ancient scriptures of humanity.
  • Rishis "saw" the mantras
  • The Vedas are called "Sruti."
  • The Vedas have been handed down orally from generation to generation and have not been taught from any written text.
  • The Vedas have been preserved with the utmost care as the mantras are most efficacious only if each syllable is chanted with precision
  • The mantras as of measurable and remarkable value
    • Because of their sound
      • The words are notable

• The Four Vedas

  • The great sage Vyaasa compiled the four Vedas:
    • The Rig Veda
    • Yajur Veda
    • Saama Veda
    • Atharvana Veda.
  • The Rig Veda:
    • Wholly in form
    • Vedic thought does not compartmentalize God and nature
    • As Amma the creation rivers plants animals sun moon and everything are expressions
  • Since the Rig Veda starts with verse of Agbi and end with Agbi it thinks its about fire
  • Verses loftuly dales which are not only abour fire worshippers and profound philosophy
  • The word Yajas:
    • It can be deived from "yajas"" which meansworship
      • The yujur is fanmous fro its presntations of vediac riutuials where the riyuials of admedha amd raja suya
      • The rigu eda helps ing the praiase but uujar helps in astual rituiaals with the praise

• Saama Veda:

  • Saamma means "the peace"" or to bringe the shanyt to peaple hearts
  • they are chaneted in the musical scaole turing the make to the bases. for swarass or a seven
  • In Bhagawta Grima, and krisahnna are among the vedads

• Atharva Veda:

  • This Atharva Veda was brought to light by rhis
  • this conatins mantra, ewivls and hard ships with hymns dalying with creation.
  • the earth is our mother and land is reveread

• Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads - All of teh vedass haev four pparts sambiths bramhnass Arayanas Upandas - The shima is main text with Veda - Brahamannas serve the purpose of the bible book that explain in inshasa - one graduates through the study of th ehAraya, amdn

• The Sif Vedanta: - the vedanga literalyy means "liniib of th evedasa - thee diseplioes are concermed for the proper Understadnung for the bedic text - Siksa - Lyakarama chanadass - Nriukshai - Jytosisha and Kampa

Chapter 7: One God, Many Forms

• Introduction:

  • Scriptures a unique mix and blend
    • one part: a phiosopy other a worship
      • there fore many gods festivals
        • The vedas authoratuavly promcian one reality and there the goal
          • our realign not potherisituc but to get better functuion.
            • the god is the self in all The symbollsim played an umportat role in life in India so as communication

• Ganesha: - Ganish a huma with the elephant head meant

  • large are indicat listen the trunk which springs from heads show the intllect can inmpatare realm fo mattrail

• the man his is swayed . By life as a good enviroonmt and badenvirobment - his large beggy is that a consumer

• Sibua his the world and distrubsed agitatited the mind - if toughs from tanic rasis you dis you self The devalis is said to come to office or pija , they all change on the different task that they hav ein life.