Ancient Greece and Rome Key Dates and Vocab

• Dates to note include 476 A.D., the Fall of the Roman Empire
• Dates to note include 1400s A.D./1453 A.D., the Fall of the Eastern Empire
• 148 B.C. marks the year Greece became a Roman Providence
• The Golden Age of Greece occured in the 5th century B.C.
• In 1066 A.D., William the Conqueror invaded and conquered England
• Following the conquest of England in 1066 A.D., French became the language of Law and Court

Key Vocabulary

• "Catharsis" refers to the cleansing of emotions, thought to be an important benefit of tragedies
• "Hamartia" is a tragic flaw or error in judgment present in a character
• "Deus Ex Machina" means "God in the machine."
• "Deus Ex Machina" involves a plot weakness where the writer relies unreasonably on the gods to resolve a situation
• Old Comedy: a vulgar standup act
• New Comedy: more witty, less vulgar
• Irony occurs when a character is unaware of something the audience knows
• A Morality Play seeks the salvation of the soul while depicting the struggle between good and evil

Poetics

• Single Plot is a tragedy where action goes from good fortune to bad for the main character
• Double Plot is a plot where some characters go from good fortune to bad, while others go from bad fortune to good
• Simple Plot does not contain recognition or reversal
• Complex Plot contains recognition or reversal
• Complication is the "turn" of the plot
• Resolution is everything after the turn of the plot
• Recognition is a change from ignorance to knowledge
• Reversal is a reversal to fortune
• Organic Unity means that the middle and end of a plot are necessary to the story
• Taboo is something awful, even without context
• Epic is long
• Lyric is a short moment
• Play means is a dialogue or imitation of an action
• Drama is more open
• Essay is formal but not elevated, normal
• Clarity is the single most important element of writing
• The innate quality of a poet lies in the ability to make metaphor and see reality differently
• Aristotle considered Homer the greatest poet
• Homer speaks little as a poet, given that the story is told through characters
• Fiction must stick with a probable story with probable impossibility greater than improbable truth
• Aristotle studied at Plato's school, founded Lyceum, and taught Alexander the Great
• Tragedy depicts people as better than they are, imitating action with serious magnitude
• A tragedy must have a beginning, middle, end, and invoke pity and fear
• Comedy involves low levels of rhetoric and vulgarity
• Comedy depicts people as worse than they are
• Aristotle based his tragedies on Seneca
• The worst type of plot is an episodic plot, which lacks necessary connection between events
• Euripides is the most tragic of all poets

Character Lists

• Key Characters: Agamemnon
• Agamemnon is the King of Argos, who returns from the Trojan War and is murdered by his wife
• (Scene): Agamemnon walks on a red carpet laid out by Clytemnestra, which foreshadows his doom
• Key Characters: Clytemnestra
• Clytemnestra is Agamemnon's wife, who plots his murder
• (Scene): Clytemnestra delivers a chilling speech justifying her actions after killing Agamemnon
• Key Characters: Cassandra
• Cassandra is a Trojan princess, prophetess, and enslaved by Agamemnon
• (Scene): Cassandra foresees her own and Agamemnon's death but is powerless to stop it
• Key Characters: Aegisthus
• Aegisthus is Clytemnestra's lover, who helps plot Agamemnon's murder
• (Scene): Aegisthus boasts that he is avenging his father but is dismissed as cowardly
• Key Characters: Chorus of Argive Elders
• The Chorus of Argive Elders serve as narrators and commentators
• (Scene): The Chorus of Argive Elders lament Agamemnon's murder but hesitate to act

Libation Bearers (Aeschylus)

• Key Characters: Orestes
• Orestes is the Son of Agamemnon, who avenges his father's murder
• (Scene): Orestes recognizes Electra during a graveside ritual and reveals his identity
• Key Characters: Electra
• Electra is the Daughter of Agamemnon, who helps Orestes seek revenge
• (Scene): Electra prays at Agamemnon's grave, wishing for vengeance
• Key Characters: Clytemnestra
• Clytemnestra now rules Argos and is eventually killed by Orestes
• (Scene): Clytemnestra pleads for her life, claiming motherhood should protect her
• Key Characters: Pylades
• Pylades is Orestes' friend, who reminds him of his duty to Apollo
• (Scene): Pylades speaks only once, urging Orestes to complete his revenge
• Key Characters: Chorus of Slave Women
• The Chorus of Slave Women support Orestes' quest for justice
• (Scene): The Chorus of Slave Women encourage Electra to invoke the spirits of the dead

Eumenides (Aeschylus)

• Key Characters: Orestes
• Orestes is now hunted by the Furies for killing his mother
• (Scene): Orestes seeks sanctuary at Apollo's temple in Delphi
• Key Characters: Furies (Erinyes)
• The Furies (Erinyes) are spirits of vengeance pursuing Orestes
• (Scene): The Furies sing a terrifying choral ode about the power of vengeance
• Key Characters: Athena
• Athena is a Goddess who intervenes and establishes a trial for Orestes
• (Scene): Athena casts the deciding vote in Orestes' trial, absolving him
• Key Characters: Apollo
• Apollo defends Orestes, arguing that paternal lineage matters more than maternal
• (Scene): Apollo declares that the father is more important than the mother in childbearing
• Key Characters: Chorus of Furies
• The Chorus of Furies become the Eumenides (Kindly Ones) after Athena's ruling
• (Scene): The Chorus of Furies accept Athena's offer to protect Athens instead of seeking revenge

Oresteia (Aeschylus – Trilogy)

• The Oresteia includes all the above characters that appear throughout Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers, and The Eumenides

Oedipus Rex (Sophocles)

• Key Characters: Oedipus
• Oedipus is the King of Thebes, who unknowingly marries his mother and kills his father
• (Scene): Oedipus blinds himself with Jocasta's brooches after discovering the truth
• Key Characters: Jocasta
• Jocasta is Oedipus' wife and mother
• (Scene): Jocasta dismisses prophecy before realizing its truth; then she hangs herself
• Key Characters: Creon
• Creon is Oedipus' brother-in-law, later ruler of Thebes
• (Scene): Creon refuses to exile Oedipus without consulting the gods
• Key Characters: Tiresias
• Tiresias is a blind prophet who knows the truth
• (Scene): Tiresias warns Oedipus that he is the murderer he seeks
• Key Characters: Chorus of Theban Elders
• The Chorus of Theban Elders comment on events and fate
• (Scene): The Chorus of Theban Elders lament Oedipus' downfall in a final ode on human suffering

The Book of Job (Biblical Text)

• Key Characters: Job
• Job is a righteous man tested by God
• (Scene): Job sits in ashes, scraping his sores, refusing to curse God Key Characters: God
• God allows Job to be tested
• (Scene): God speaks from a whirlwind, questioning Job's knowledge
• Key Characters: Satan (The Adversary)
• Satan (The Adversary) challenges Job's faith
• (Scene): Satan argues that Job is only faithful because he is blessed
• Key Characters: Job's Three Friends (Eliphaz, Bildad, Zophar)
• Job's Three Friends argue that Job must have sinned
• (Scene): Job's Three Friends present different explanations for Job's suffering
• Key Characters: Elihu
• Elihu is a younger man who speaks last
• (Scene): Elihu claims Job should be humbled before God

The Trojan Women (Euripides)

• Key Characters: Hecuba
• Hecuba is the Queen of Troy and now a slave
• (Scene): Hecuba mourns the loss of Troy and her children
• Key Characters: Cassandra
• Cassandra is the daughter of Hecuba who is a prophetess
• (Scene): Cassandra dances wildly, foretelling doom for her captors
• Key Characters: Andromache
• Andromache is the widow of Hector
• (Scene): Andromache pleads for her son's life before he is thrown from the walls
• Key Characters: Helen
• Helen takes the blame for the war
• (Scene): Helen defends herself to Menelaus, claiming she was a victim
• Key Characters: Chorus of Trojan Women
• The Chorus of Trojan Women lament their fate
• (Scene): The Chorus of Trojan Women sing a sorrowful ode about the fall of Troy

The Frogs (Aristophanes)

• Key Characters: Dionysus
• Dionysus is the God of theater, who goes to the underworld to bring back a great playwright
• (Scene): Dionysus disguises himself as Heracles to gain entry into Hades
• Key Characters: Xanthias
• Xanthias is Dionysus’ slave, who is funnier and braver than Dionysus
• (Scene): Xanthias switches roles with Dionysus multiple times
• Key Characters: Euripides and Aeschylus
• Euripides and Aeschylus compete to prove who is the better playwright
• (Scene): Euripides and Aeschylus debate poetry's role in society
• Key Characters: Charon
• Charon is the Ferryman of the dead
• (Scene): Charon forces Dionysus to row the boat himself
• Key Characters: Chorus of Frogs
• The Chorus of Frogs sing the famous "Brekekekex koax koax" song
• (Scene): The Chorus of Frogs annoy Dionysus with their croaking

Everyman (Medieval Morality Play)

• Key Characters: Everyman
• Everyman represents all of humanity
• (Scene): Everyman realizes that only Good Deeds can accompany him to the afterlife
• Key Characters: Death
• Death summons Everyman to judgment
• (Scene): Death unexpectedly tells Everyman that his time is up
• Key Characters: Good Deeds
• Good Deeds is the only companion who stays with Everyman
• (Scene): Good Deeds is too weak to walk until Everyman repents
• Key Characters: Knowledge
• Knowledge guides Everyman to confession
• (Scene): Knowledge helps Everyman understand his sins
• Key Characters: Fellowship (Friends/Companions)
• Fellowship initially promises to help, but backs out when he realizes it means facing death
• Excuse: Fellowship claims he'd go with Everyman for fun, but not to face death
• Key Characters: Kindred (Family) and Cousin
• Kindred (Family) and Cousin represent blood relatives, but they refuse to accompany Everyman
• Excuse: Kindred says they will help, but then refuses
• Excuse: Cousin jokes and claims a cramp
• Key Characters: Goods (Material Wealth and Possessions)
• Everyman thinks his riches will help him, but Goods states they are useless after death
• Excuse: Goods explains that they actually harm his case in judgment
• Key Characters: Strength, Beauty, Discretion, and Five Wits (Human Qualities)
• Strength, Beauty, Discretion, and Five Wits say they'll accompany him, but abandon him near death
• Excuse: Strength doesn't want to go where Everyman is headed
• Excuse: Beauty refuses because she fades in the grave
• Excuse: Discretion follows Strength and abandons Everyman
• Excuse: Five Wits refuses to go beyond a certain point

Symbol Identification: Agamemnon (Aeschylus)

• The Red Carpet symbolizes Agamemnon's hubris and inevitable downfall
• Walking on the Red Carpet represents Agamemnon’s arrogance
• The Beacon Fires represent communication and fate, announcing Troy's fall and foreshadowing Agamemnon's demise
• The Net symbolizes entrapment and fate
• Clytemnestra describes Agamemnon as entrapped like a helpless animal

Libation Bearers (Aeschylus)

• Agamemnon's Grave represents justice, vengeance, and the past's influence
• The Libations symbolize purification, mourning, and the call for revenge
• Orestes' Lock of Hair serves as a symbol of familial connection
• This moment of connection is when Electra realizes Orestes is alive

Eumenides (Aeschylus)

• The Furies represent vengeance and the old cycle of blood justice
• Athena's Scales (Trial by Jury) symbolize civilization and the transition from personal revenge to law-based justice
• Apollo's Temple at Delphi represents divine intervention and the shift from old laws to new order

Oresteia (Aeschylus – Trilogy)

• All previous symbols apply as it's the combination of Agamemnon, Libation Bearers, and Eumenides

Oedipus Rex (Sophocles)

• Eyes and Blindness symbolize knowledge and ignorance
• Tiresias is blind but sees the truth, while Oedipus is blind to reality despite his sight
• Crossroads represent fate and choice
• Oedipus unknowingly kills his father at a literal and symbolic crossroads
• Swollen Foot (Oedipus' Name) symbolizes his cursed fate from birth

The Book of Job (Biblical Text)

• The Whirlwind represents God's power and the mystery of divine justice
• God speaks to Job from the whirlwind
• Boils on Job's Skin symbolize suffering and human frailty
• Job's body is as broken as his spirit
• The Leviathan and Behemoth represent God's incomprehensible power and the smallness of human understanding

The Trojan Women (Euripides)

• Troy's Ruins symbolize loss, destruction, and the consequences of war
• Hecuba's Crown (Now Worthless) represents the fall from royalty to slavery
• Andromache's Baby (Astyanax) symbolizes the future of Troy
• The Greeks destroy the future of Troy by throwing Andromache's Baby from the walls

The Frogs (Aristophanes)

• Frogs represent mindless, repetitive noise, mocking bad poetry and shallow thinking
• The Contest of Aeschylus and Euripides symbolizes the debate over the role of art and literature in society
• The Underworld serves as a metaphor for societal decay and the need for great leadership

Everyman (Medieval Morality Play)

• The Journey represents Everyman's path to death and judgment
• The Ledger (Book of Deeds) symbolizes a moral accounting of one's life
• The Ledger determines Everyman's fate
• Good Deeds (Weak at First, Strengthens Later) represents the only thing that follows a person into the afterlife

Relationships between the different plays

• Fate and Divine Justice (Oedipus Rex, The Oresteia, The Book of Job)
• Oedipus Rex: Oedipus is doomed by prophecy despite his efforts to escape fate
• The Oresteia (Agamemnon, Libation Bearers, Eumenides): Orestes is caught in a cycle of fate and vengeance which divine justice finally resolves through Athena's trial
• The Book of Job: Job suffers despite his innocence, questioning divine justice but ultimately accepting God's will
• Connection: The plays explore fate's control over human lives and the operation of divine justice

Suffering and the Fall of the Mighty (The Trojan Women, Agamemnon, The Book of Job, Everyman)

• The Trojan Women: The women of Troy (Hecuba, Cassandra, Andromache) suffer as slaves after the war
• Agamemnon: A victorious king returns from Troy only to be murdered by his wife
• The Book of Job: Job loses his wealth, family, and health
• Everyman: A rich, powerful figure realizes he is alone in death, stripped of his attachments
• Connection: Each play portrays the fall of powerful individuals and the suffering that comes with it

Vengeance, Justice, and the Cycle of Bloodshed (The Oresteia, The Trojan Women, Oedipus Rex)

• The Oresteia: The House of Atreus is trapped in a cycle of revenge
• Agamemnon is killed by Clytemnestra, who is killed by Orestes, who is then pursued by the Furies
• The Trojan Women: The Greeks destroy Troy in vengeance for Helen's abduction as the actions call into question if justice is truly just
• Oedipus Rex: Oedipus unknowingly fulfills a prophecy of vengeance by killing his father and marrying his mother
• Connection: The plays explore cycles of revenge, questioning whether justice can ever truly be achieved or if it just leads to more suffering
• The Oresteia breaks the cycle through Athena's court system

Mortality and the Afterlife (Everyman, The Frogs, The Book of Job)

• Everyman focuses on preparing for death and judgment
• The Frogs is a comedic take on the afterlife
• Dionysus visits Hades to retrieve a great playwright
• The Book of Job wrestles with questions of suffering, faith, and what happens after death
• Connection: These plays deal with how humans face death

Role of Women and Gender Power Struggles (The Trojan Women, Agamemnon, Libation Bearers, Oedipus Rex)

• The Trojan Women focuses on the suffering of women after war
• Agamemnon & Libation Bearers: Clytemnestra defies traditional female roles by taking power but is later punished
• Oedipus Rex: Jocasta is caught in a tragic fate, and does not seek power, but tries to deny prophecy

The Role of Gods and Their Influence Over Humans (Oedipus Rex, The Book of Job, The Oresteia, The Frogs)

• Oedipus Rex: The gods' prophecy determines Oedipus' fate
• The Book of Job: God allows Satan to test Job
• The Oresteia: The gods initially demand vengeance, but Athena later establishes a more civilized justice system
• The Frogs: Dionysus, a god, meddles in human affairs to bring back a playwright

Purpose & Themes

• Morality Plays (Everyman): intended to teach moral or religious lessons, focusing on salvation and judgment; themes include death, salvation, virtue vs. sin, repentance
• Tragedies (Oedipus Rex, The Oresteia, The Trojan Women, Agamemnon): explores human suffering, fate, and consequences of actions; themes are fate vs. free will, justice, revenge, suffering, and downfall of the powerful
• Comedies (The Frogs): entertains while satirizing society, politics, or human nature, encompassing themes of foolishness, mistaken identity, social criticism, and the absurdity of human life

Character Types

• Morality Plays: abstract allegorical figures (e.g., "Everyman," "Good Deeds," and "Fellowship")
• Tragedies: feature noble figures with tragic flaws (e.g., Oedipus, Agamemnon, and Clytemnestra)
• Comedies: has stock characters (e.g., fools, tricksters, gods behaving badly)
• Morality plays use abstract characters to represent concepts like sin and virtue
• Tragedies use complex individuals facing doom due to fate or personal flaws
• Comedies exaggerate human weaknesses

Role of Fate vs. Choice

• Morality Plays: Free will is central as characters can choose salvation or damnation
• Tragedies: Fate is dominant as characters struggle but cannot escape destiny
• Comedies: Fate and accidents cause absurd situations, but outcomes are lighthearted
• Example: In Everyman, Everyman prepares for death but can repent
• Example: In Oedipus Rex, Oedipus fails to escape his fate due to prophecy
• Example: In The Frogs, Dionysus makes foolish choices without real consequences

Resolution & Ending

• Morality Plays: Ends in a lesson where a character achieves salvation or is doomed
• Tragedies: Ends in suffering and death, conveying a moral or existential lesson
• Comedies: Ends in restoration through marriages, victories, or characters returning to normal life
• Key Traits: Morality plays have spiritual resolutions
• Key Traits: Tragedies have dark, irreversible resolutions
• Key Traits: Comedies have joyful/ironic resolutions, evident in The Frogs concluding with Dionysus selecting a poet to restore Athens

Audience & Cultural Role

• Morality Plays: Religious audiences used for teaching Christian values
• Tragedies: Explores deep philosophical questions for Greek and later European theatergoers
• Comedies: Prompts audiences to laugh at society's flaws, and tend to be more political and satirical
• All three forms served to educate and entertain, but morality plays were didactic, tragedies philosophical, and comedies satirical