Ancient and Medieval European History

• Historians divide European history into different time periods.
• The period from 4000 BC to AD 1453 is separated into 'ancient times' and 'Medieval Times' based on the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
• 'Ancient times' in Europe started around 4000 BC.
• Classical civilization rose in the Mediterranean region around 800 BC and is regarded as the origin of European civilization.
• The 'Medieval Times' started when the Western Roman Empire fell in AD 476.
• Europe entered the 'Medieval Times', also known as the Middle Ages, at this time.
• The Aegean region was close to the Fertile Crescent and Nile Valley civilizations and influenced by them.
• Around 800 BC, the ancient Greeks built city-states and invented writing.
• The rise of ancient Greek civilization ended the Dark Ages of the Greek peninsula.
• The political structure of ancient Greece consisted of many independent city-states, each with different forms of government.
• Ancient Greece was hilly and included the Greek peninsula, Crete, the west coast of Asia Minor, and the islands in the Aegean Sea.
• Because places were separated by sea and mountains, the Greeks established independent city-states.
• The ancient Greeks consisted of different tribes with different cultures, which made it difficult to unite them under a single government.
• The ancient Greeks established their own governments.
• Social differences led to different forms of government.
• A highly centralized government was needed in Sparta to rule the large population of slaves, or helots.
• Athens had more people engaged in trade, who wanted more power from nobles, leading to the rise of democracy.
• Ancient Greece consisted of several hundred city-states of different sizes, each including a city and the surrounding land.
• Relations among the city-states were equal.
• Athens and Sparta were the two most representative city-states.

Comparison of Athens and Sparta

• Athens was located on the southeastern coast of the Greek peninsula.
• The government in Athens was a democracy where all citizens could participate in governance, with the Assembly having the highest authority.
• In Athens, people were involved in farming, fishing, pottery and trading, and they valued education.
• Children in Athens were sent to school at an early age.
• Sparta was located in the southern inland area of the Greek peninsula.
• Sparta had an oligarchical government, with the Council of Elders holding the highest authority.
• People in Sparta were mainly farmers, with a warlike culture and a love for sports.
• Children in Sparta were sent to army training barracks at an early age.
• Athens was the most important port and richest city-state in ancient Greece, known for its strong navy and as the birthplace of great thinkers.
• Athens featured many temples and open-air theaters and won many prizes in sports festivals.
• Sparta had a strong army.
• According to Aristotle, ancient Greek city-states had three main forms of government: monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy.
• Monarchy signifies the rule by kings, such as in Macedonia.
• Oligarchy signifies the rule by a group of nobles, such as in Sparta.
• Democracy signifies the rule by the people, such as in Athens.
• The different forms of governance correlated with the level of the citizens' participation in politics.
• Citizens in ancient Greece were free adult men born in and living in the city-states, with the right to vote and be elected as officials.
• The rapid development of city-states led to the 'Classical Age', around the 5th to 4th centuries BC.
• Athens was a center of trade, learning, and art during the Classical Age.
• During the Classical Age, the ancient Greeks set up colonies in the Black Sea and Mediterranean regions.
• Alexander the Great built a vast empire that covered Europe, Asia, and Africa, widely spreading ancient Greek civilization.
• From the 3rd century BC, the ancient Romans started invading ancient Greece.
• The Romans finally occupied the Greek peninsula in 146 BC and the ancient Greek civilization declined as the area was influenced by the ancient Roman civilization.
• In 753 BC, a Latin village developed into a city called 'Rome' in central Italy.
• The people in Rome were known as 'Romans' and the 'ancient Roman civilization' began here.
• The Romans learned about the ancient Greek civilization from their neighboring peoples.
• The Romans also developed different political systems as a result of civil wars and foreign expansions.
• After the founding of Rome, the Romans were ruled by kings.
• In 509 BC, the Romans overthrew their cruel king and established the Roman Republic.
• The rulers of the Roman Republic were chosen through election, not hereditary succession.
• The government was divided into executive and legislative branches.
• The executive branch was composed of two consuls, the highest officials, elected by all male citizens.
• The Senate would advise the consuls and appoint governors, with most senators being patricians and not requiring election.
• The legislative branch included all male citizens who could vote in elections for the legislative assemblies and on bills suggested by the Senate.
• During the early years of the Republic, the consuls and senators only came from the patricians.
• Around 494 BC, the plebeians could elect tribunes to represent them in the Senate.
• Beginning in 342 BC, one of the consuls had to be a plebeian, which greatly increased the power of the plebeians.
• Victories in external wars allowed Rome to dominate the Mediterranean Sea and led to the rise of military leaders.
• In 60 BC, Julius Caesar controlled Rome and was elected consul, making Rome more powerful and improving peoples' lives.
• The Senate, jealous of Caesar's increasing military power, supported Pompey in starting a civil war in 49 BC in order to overthrow Caesar.
• Caesar ultimately won the war and was elected 'dictator for life' with all the power.
• In 44 BC, Caesar was killed by the senators.
• Caesar's adopted son Octavian worked with Caesar's general Antony and they jointly gained power and ruled the Roman Republic.
• In 31 BC, a civil war broke out between Octavian and Antony.
• Antony was defeated and killed himself, leaving Octavian as the sole ruler of the Roman Republic.
• In 27 BC, Octavian was called 'Augustus', a title given by the Senate.
• Starting with Augustus, Rome transitioned from a republic to imperial rule and the Roman Empire began.
• The Roman emperor was not elected and held all the powers.
• The executive and legislative organs of the republican period almost lost all their powers.
• During the late period of the Roman Empire, emperors used military power to strengthen their rule and even punished people who criticized them.
• As for the provinces, the governors were mostly appointed by the emperors.
• The government carried out Romanization in the provinces, including the introduction of Roman law and construction of Roman buildings, spreading ancient Roman civilization.
• The first two hundred years of the Roman Empire, from 27 BC to AD 180, was called 'Pax Romana', or 'Roman Peace', which was a golden age.
• In AD 395, the Roman Empire was divided into the Western and the Eastern Roman Empires.
• In AD 476, the Western Roman Empire was overthrown by the Germanic.
• The prolonged wars in Europe caused the classical civilization to decline.
• Constantinople, formerly Byzantium, was the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, also referred to as the 'Byzantine Empire', and maintained the ancient Greco-Roman civilization.
• Roman emperor was not elected by citizens, he held all the powers.
• Mediolanum, was the capital of the Western Roman Empire.
• The fall of the Western Roman Empire marked the start of Medieval Times (AD 476-1453) in Europe.
• The early ancient Greek law was not clearly stated or written down.
• The nobles held all political power and enforced the law at will.
• In the 6th century BC, Athens carried out legal reforms to protect civil rights.
• In Athens, all people would be tried within a public court, with jurors chosen from different classes to ensure fairness.
• The Athenians valued civil rights and law and Romans learned their idea of the rule of law from the Athenians.
• Many modern countries adopt the jury system, which makes the legal system more fair, open and just.
• The Romans created the 'Law of the Twelve Tables' with reference to ancient Greek law and the Roman law was continuously improved, laying the foundation of the rule of law.
• Roman law also stressed the natural rights of citizens that could not be taken away by the government.
• Citizens had the right to a fair trial and to appeal and were equal before the law.
• The concepts of natural rights and equality in Roman law influenced later generations.
• The spirit of Roman law was inherited by modern Western law codes such as the Civil Code of the French and the German Civil Code.
• Many Latin legal terms are still used by many countries.
• The ancient Greeks worshipped many gods and goddesses, believing that twelve major gods lived on Mount Olympus and had human feelings.
• Zeus was the head of the gods.
• The ancient Greek heroes were half-god and half-man, with great strength and wisdom.
• Greek mythology influenced the development of European languages and many English words originate from Greek myths, such as 'chaos', 'hygiene' and 'music'.
• The most famous ancient Greek event was the Olympic Games, held to honor Zeus.
• A truce occurred during the games, allowing athletes to safely reach the arena.
• The first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens in 1896.
• The Modern Olympic Games follow the traditions of the ancient Olympic Games and are held every four years, but in different countries.
• 'Philosophy' is derived from a Greek word meaning 'the love of wisdom'.
• Ancient Greek thinkers inquired into different aspects of life, such as politics, morality and the universe by asking questions through rational argument.
• Socrates, Plato and Aristotle are the founders of Western philosophy and known as the 'three Greek sages of philosophy'.
• The ancient Greeks used bronze and marble to make statues centered on worship activities, myths and athletes.
• Greek sculptures showed the ideal proportion of the human body, as well as lifelike personality and body movements, influencing the development of Western sculpture.
• Ancient Roman style was realistic and featured statues of emperors and nobles.
• Ancient Roman sculptures showed the real image of mortals and paid attention to details, impacting the development of Western art.
• Ancient Greek buildings had artistic value with temples surrounded by monuments, with capitals carved with beautiful patterns.
  • The Doric Order, Ionic Order and Corinthian Order were specific designs for the capitals.
• Pediments were parts commonly found at the top of ancient Greek buildings and the parts of Greek architecture have been adopted by architects for centuries.
• Ancient Roman cities were well-planned with a huge road network linking Rome and other provinces and a good water supply and sewerage system supported by aqueducts and pipelines.
• The Romans also built various facilities, such as temples, forums, theaters, stadiums, and bathhouses.
• The Roman forums were open spaces between buildings used to hold political, religious and commercial activities.
• Colonnades were built around a forum and the design is seen in later European architecture.
• The concept of a forum is still widely used in city planning.
• Ancient Greek law valued civil rights and had a public court and jury system, with the Romans learning the rule of law and many modern countries adopting the jury system.
• Roman law valued civil rights and citizens had the right to a fair trial and to appeal.
• The concepts of natural rights were inherited by modern Western law codes and many Latin legal terms are still used.
• Ancient Greek mythology had stories about people, gods and heroes and influenced the development of european languages and drama.
• Ancient Greek thinkers inquired into the world, influencing the spirit of inquiry of Greek scholars, and birth to Western philosophy.
• Ancient greek sculpture was based on myths and athletes, and had an influence on Art
• Ancient Roman sculpture was realistic had great impact on the development of Western Art.
• Ancient Gree architecture Had an impact modern architecture.
• Well planned architecture, forums had been adopted.