Anatomy & Physiology: Body Cavities and Regions

Human Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide

Body Cavities

• A body cavity exists as a space within the body that houses internal organs (viscera)
• Cavities and their organs are:
  • Cranial: brain, pituitary gland
  • Spinal: nerves of the spinal cord
  • Thoracic: lungs, heart, esophagus, trachea, bronchial tubes, thymus gland, aorta
  • Pleural: space between the membranes called pleura
  • Mediastinum: area between lungs and containing the heart, aorta, trachea, esophagus, thymus gland, and bronchial tubes
  • Abdominal: stomach, small and large intestines, spleen, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
• The peritoneum is a double-folded membrane surrounding the abdominal cavity
• The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs situated at the back peritoneal area of the abdominal cavity on either side of the backbone
  • Pelvic: urinary bladder, urethra, ureters; uterus and vagina in the female

Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants

• The abdominal and pelvic cavities are divided into nine regions commonly used by doctors to describe the regions in which internal organs are found:
  • Hypochondriac regions: two upper right and left regions; below the cartilage (chondr/o) of the ribs that extend over the abdomen
  • Epigastric region: region above the stomach
  • Lumbar regions: two middle right and left regions near the waist
  • Umbilical region: region of the navel or umbilicus
  • Inguinal (iliac) regions: two lower right and left regions; near the groin (inguin/o = groin), which is the area where the legs join the trunk of the body
  • Hypogastric region: lower middle region below the umbilical region
• The abdominopelvic area is divided into four quadrants by drawing two imaginary lines, one horizontally and one vertically through the body:
  • Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ): liver (right lobe), gallbladder, part of the pancreas, parts of the small and large intestines
  • Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ): liver (left lobe), stomach, spleen, part of the pancreas, parts of the small and large intestines
  • Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ): parts of the small and large intestines, right ovary, right uterine (fallopian) tube, appendix, right ureter
  • Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ): parts of the small and large intestines, left ovary, left uterine tube, left ureter

Structural Organization of Human Body

• The structural organization of the human body is a hierarchy: cells -> tissues -> organs -> systems -> human body

Human Body Systems Interrelationship

• The integumentary system protects the body from the external environment
• The digestive and respiratory systems, in contact with the external environment, take in nutrients and oxygen
• Nutrients and oxygen are distributed to cells via the circulatory system
• Metabolic wastes are eliminated by the urinary and respiratory systems
• The musculoskeletal system provides shape and stability and protects vital organs
• The nervous system coordinates bodily activities
• The endocrine system regulates growth and development, tissue function, and metabolism
• The reproductive system ensures survival of the species

Structure of Cell

• The cell forms the fundamental unit of every living organism
  • Cell Membrane: surrounds and protects the cell, and determines what passes into and out of the cell
  • Nucleus: the controlling structure of the cell that directs cell reproduction and determines its structure and function
  • Chromosomes: rod-like structures within the nucleus
    • all human body cells (except sex cells) contain 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)
    • genes are regions contained in chromosomes, with several thousand in an orderly sequence on each chromosome. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) regulates cell activities by its sequence in genes
    • Cytoplasm: all material outside the nucleus and enclosed by the cell membrane
      • Mitochondria: small, sausage-shaped bodies that produce energy by burning food in the presence of oxygen through catabolism
        • Catabolism: complex foods (sugar and fat) are broken down into simpler substances, releasing energy
      • Endoplasmic Reticulum: a network of canals within the cell where proteins are manufactured (anabolism)
        • Anabolism: small protein pieces are fitted together like links in a chain to make larger proteins
    • Metabolism: combined action of anabolism and catabolism

Differences in Cells

• Cells are different and specialized throughout the body to carry out individual functions:
  • Muscle cells: long and slender with fibers for contracting and relaxing
  • Epithelial cells: square and flat to provide protection
  • Nerve cells: quite long, with various fibrous extensions aiding in carrying impulses
  • Fat cells: large, empty spaces for fat storage

Tissues and Organs

• A tissue constitutes a group of similar cells performing a specific job

• A histologist specializes in the study of tissues

  • Epithelial Tissue: lines internal organs, found in exocrine and endocrine glands, and forms the outer surface of skin
  • Muscle Tissue:
    • Voluntary Muscle: found in arms, legs, and parts of the body where movement is voluntary
    • Involuntary Muscle: found in the heart and digestive system where movement is not under conscious control
  • Connective Tissue: examples are fat (adipose tissue), cartilage (elastic), fibrous tissue (attached to bones), as well as bone and blood
  • Nerve Tissue: conducts impulses throughout the body

• Organs consist of several kinds of tissue

• Viscera refers to internal organs (singular: viscus)

Systems

• Systems consist of groups of organs working together to perform complex functions

Digestive System

• The digestive system (alimentary canal or gastrointestinal tract) begins with the mouth and ends with the anus
• Primary functions include:
  • Digestion: breaking down complex food mechanically and chemically through gastrointestinal tract
  • Absorption: digested food passing through the walls of the small intestine into the bloodstream
  • Elimination: removal of solid waste materials that cannot be absorbed

Anatomy and Physiology of the Oral Cavity (Mouth)

• Lips: surround the opening of the cavity
• Cheeks: form the walls of the oval-shaped oral cavity
• Hard palate: forms the anterior portion of the roof of the mouth
• Soft palate: muscular soft palate lies posterior to the hard palate
• Rugae: irregular ridges in the mucous membrane covering the anterior portion of the hard palate
• Uvula: small, soft tissue hanging from the soft palate, functioning to aid in producing sounds and speech
• Tongue: extends across the floor of the oral cavity, with muscles attaching it to the lower jaw bone, moving food around during mastication and deglutition
  • Papillae: small raised areas on the tongue contain taste buds sensitive to food's chemical nature
• Tonsils: masses of lymphatic tissue in depressions on both sides of the oropharynx, acting as filters and producing lymphocytes
• Gums: made of fleshy tissue that surround the sockets of the teeth
• There are 32 permanent teeth (16 on each jaw)
  • Central incisor
  • Lateral incisor
  • Canine
  • First premolar
  • Second premolar
  • First molar
  • Second molar
  • Third molar (wisdom tooth)
• The oral cavity has three pairs of surrounding salivary glands, exocrine glands that produce saliva (a fluid containing important digestive enzymes) is
• Saliva is released from:
  • Parotid gland
  • Submandibular gland
  • Sublingual gland

Pharynx

• The pharynx (throat) is a muscular tube (about 5 inches long) lined with a mucous membrane
• It serves as a passageway for air and food
• During swallowing (deglutition), the epiglottis (a flap of tissue) covers the trachea to prevent food from entering it.

Esophagus

• is a 9- to 10- inch muscular tube extending from the pharynx to the stomach
• Rhythmic contractions of muscles in the wall of the esophagus propel food toward the stomach (Peristalsis)

Stomach

• Food passes from the esophagus into the stomach
  • Fundus: upper portion
  • Body: middle section
  • Pylorus: lower portion
• The openings into and from the stomach are controlled by sphincters
  • The cardiac sphincter relaxes and contracts to move food from the esophagus into the stomach
  • The pyloric sphincter allows food to leave the stomach when it has been sufficiently digested
• The mucous membrane lining of the stomach has folds called rugae, containing digestive glands that produce enzymes and hydrochloric acid
• The stomach prepares food chemically and mechanically for further digestion and absorption in the small intestine
• Food leaves the stomach in 1-4 hours or longer, depending upon the amount and type of food eaten

Small Intestine

• The small intestine extends for 20 feet from the pyloric sphincter to the first part of the large intestine
  • Duodenum: Receives food from the stomach as well as bile from the liver and gallbladder, and pancreatic juice from the pancreas
  • Jejunum: Connects with the duodenum
  • Ileum: Attaches to the first part of the large intestine
• Lining the walls of the small intestine are Villi microscopic projections where capillaries absorb into the bloodstream and lymph vessels

Large Intestine

• Extends from the end of the ileum to the anus and is divided into four parts
  • Cecum: A pouch on the right side that attaches to the ileum by the ileocecal valve sphincter, with the appendix hangs from the cecum
  • Colon: Has three divisions (ascending, transverse, descending)
  • Sigmoid colon: Shaped like an "S," lies at the distal end of the descending colon, leading into the rectum
  • Rectum: Terminates in the lower opening of the gastrointestinal tract, the anus

Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas

• These organs play a crucial role in the proper digestion and absorption of nutrients
  • Liver: located in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen and manufactures bile, which contains cholesterol, bile acids, and several bile pigments (including bilirubin)
    • Bilirubin is produced from the breakdown of hemoglobin in the liver
  • Gallbladder: pear-shaped sac under the liver, which stores and concentrates the bile for later use
  • Pancreas: functions as both an exocrine and endocrine organ
    • As an exocrine gland, it produces pancreatic juices filled with enzymes amylaseandlipase to digest food
    • As an endocrine gland, the pancreas secretes insulin
• Bile breaks apart large fat globules that enzymes from the pancreas can digest

Pathway of Food Through the Digestive Tract

• Mouth -> Pharynx -> Esophagus -> Stomach -> Small Intestine -> Large Intestine -> Anus

Digestive System Vocabulary

• Absorption: Passage of materials through the walls of the intestine into the bloodstream.
• Alimentary Canal: The digestive tract/canal; aliment means food.
• Amino acids: Small substances that are the building blocks of proteins and are produced when proteins are digested.
• Amylase: Enzyme from the pancreas to digest starch. -ase = enzyme. amyl = starch.
• Anus: Opening of the digestive tract to the outside of the body.
• Appendix: Blind pouch hanging from the first part of the colon (cecum).
• Bile: Digestive juice made in the liver and stored in the gallbladder to breaks up large fat globules (emulsifies).
• Bilirubin: Pigment released by the liver in bile; produced from the destruction of hemoglobin. -globin = a blood protein
• Bowel: Intestine.
• Canine teeth: Pointed, dog-like next to the incisors are also called Cuspids or eyeteeth.
• Cecum: First part of the large intestine.
• Colon: Large intestine that has ascending, transverse, and descending parts
• Common bile duct: Carries bile from the liver and gallbladder to the duodenum.
• Deglutition: Swallowing.
• Dentin: Major tissue composing teeth, covered by the enamel in the crown and a protective layer of cementum in the root.
• Digestion: Breakdown of complex foods to simpler form
• Duodenum: First part of the small intestine.
• Emulsification: Physical process of breaking up large fat globules into smaller globules, thus increasing the surface area that enzymes can use to digest the fat.
• Enamel: Hard, outermost layer of a tooth.
• Enzyme: A chemical that speeds up a reaction between substances.
• Digestive enzymes help in the breakdown of complex foods to simpler foods.
• Esophagus: Tube connecting the throat to the stomach.
• Fatty acids: Substances produced when fats are digested.
• Feces: Solid wastes; stool.
• Gallbladder: Small sac under the liver to store bile.
• Glucose: Simple sugar.
• Glycogen: Animal starch, glucose is stored as glycogen in liver cells. Hepatic portal system: Capillaries smallbloodvessels that carry blood from the digestive tract to the liver.
• Hydrochloric acid: Substance produced by the stomach; necessary for digestion of food.
• Ileum: Third part of the small intestine.
• Incisor: One of four front teeth in the dental arch.
• Insulin: Hormone produced by the endocrine cells of the pancreas. It transports sugar into cells from the blood and stimulates glycogen formation by the liver.
• Jejunum: Second part of the small intestine.
• Lipase: Pancreatic enzyme necessary to digest fats
• Liver: A large organ located in the RUQ of the abdomen.
• Mastication: Chewing.
• Palate: Roof of the mouth. Pancreas: Organ under the stomach.It produces insulin and enzymes for digestion of foods.
• Papillae: Small elevations on the tongue.
• Parotid gland: Salivary gland near the ear.
• Peristalsis: Rhythm-like contractions of the tubes of the alimentary tract and other tubular structures.
• Pharynx: Throat, the common passageway for food from the mouth and air from the nose.
• Pulp: Soft tissue within a tooth containing nerves and blood vessels.
• Pyloric sphincter: Ring of muscle at the distal region of the stomach.
• Rectum: End of the colon.
• Rugae: Ridges on the hard palate and wall of the stomach.
• Saliva: Digestive juice produced by salivary glands.
• Sigmoid colon: Lower part of the colon; shaped like an S.
• Sphincter: Ring of muscles within a tube.
• Stomach: Muscular organ that receives food from the esophagus.
• Triglycerides: Large fat molecules composed of three molecules of fatty acids with one molecule of glycerol.
• Uvula: Soft tissue hanging from the soft palate in the mouth.
• Villi: Tiny microscopic projections in the walls of the small intestine to absorb nutrients into the bloodstream.

Pathological Conditions & Symptoms

• Achlorhydria: lack of hydrochloric acid in the stomach
• Anorexia: lack of appetite.
• Ascites: abnormal accumulation of fluid in the abdomen.
• Colic: acute abdominal pain caused by spasms of intestinal muscles
• Constipation: difficulty, delayed elimination of feces
• Diarrhea: loose, watery stools
• Dysphagia: difficulty, painful swallowing
• Flatus: gas expelled through the anus
• Gastroesophageal reflux: Solids and fluids return to the mouth from the stomach
• Hematochezia: Bright red blood from the rectum
• Jaundice: yellow-orange coloration of the skin and other tissue due to high levels of bilirubin in the blood
• Melena: black, dark brown, tarry stools; feces containing blood
• Nausea: unpleasant sensation from the stomach with a tendency to vomit
• Steatorrhea: fat in the feces

Pathological Conditions

• Oral cavity and teeth:

  • Aphthous stomatitis: inflammation of the mouth with small ulcers
  • Dental caries: tooth decay
  • Herpetic stomatitis: inflammation of the mouth by infection with the herpes virus which is commonly called fever blisters or cold sores
  • Oral leukoplakia: white plaques or patches on the mucosa of the mouth
  • Periodontal disease: inflammation and degeneration of gums, teeth, and surrounding bone (also called pyorrhea)

• Gastrointestinal Tract:

  • Achalasia: failure of sphincter muscles of the lower esophagus to relax during swallowing
  • Anal fistula: abnormal tube-like passageway near the anus that may communicate with the rectum
  • Colonic polyposis: polyps protrude from the mucous membrane of the colon
  • Colorectal cancer: carcinoma of the colon or rectum, or both
  • Crohn's disease: chronic inflammation of the intestinal tract that can affect any part of the digestive tract from the mouth to the anus
  • Diverticula: abnormal side pockets in the intestinal wall
  • Dysentery: painful, inflamed intestines
  • Esophageal varices: swollen, twisted veins around the distal end of the esophagus
  • Hemorrhoids: swollen, twisted, varicose veins in the rectal region
  • Hernia: protrusion of an organ or part through the muscle normally containing it
  • Ileus: intestinal obstruction
  • Intussusceptions: telescoping of the intestines
  • Irritable bowel syndrome: diarrheaandconstipation, lowerabdominalpain, andbloating associated with stress and tension (also called spastic colon)
  • Ulcer: open sore or lesion
  • Ulcerative colitis: chronic inflammation of the colon with the presence of ulcers
  • Volvulus: twisting of the intestine upon itself

• Liver, Gallbladder and Pancreas:

  • Cirrhosis: chronic disease of the liver with degeneration of liver cells
  • Gallstones: hard collections of bile form in the gallbladder and bile ducts, also called cholelithiasis
  • Pancreatitis: inflammation of the pancreas
  • Viral hepatitis: inflammation of the liver caused by a virus -three major types: Hepatitis A, B, and C

Lab Tests & Clinical Procedures

• Liver function tests:
  • SGOT (serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase), also called AST (aspartic acid transaminase or OT); SGPT (serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase), also called ALT (alanine transaminase or PT) measure levels of enzyme transaminases in the blood serum
    • enzyme levels elevated when there is damage to liver cells because the enzymes leak out
    • high SGPT or ALT indicator of liver disease
  • Alkaline phosphatase: increased level often found in liver disease, cancers, and many other abnormal conditions
  • Serum bilirubin: high levels of bilirubin produce a jaundiced condition in the patient (also known as the icterus index)
• Stool analyses:
  • Stool culture: feces placed in a growth medium to test for microorganisms that are in large numbers or abnormally present
  • Stool guaiac or Hemoccult test: determines blood presence in the feces and is a screening test for colon cancer
• X-Ray Tests:
  • Barium enema: barium sulfate is injected into the rectum, and x-rays are taken of the rectum and colon (lower GI series)
  • Barium swallow: barium sulfate is swallowed, and x-rays are taken of the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine (upper GI series)
  • Cholangiography: X-ray pictures of the bile vessels
  • CT (CAT) scan of the abdomen: a series of x-ray pictures are taken and processed by a computer to show a cross-sectional image of internal organs
• Other Procedures
  • Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography: contrast material is injected into the pancreatic and bile ducts while x-rays are taken
  • Abdominal ultrasonography: sound waves are beamed into the abdomen, and a record is made of the echoes as they bounce off the abdominal viscera
  • Liver scan: radioactive material is injected intravenously and taken up by the liver cells
  • Gastrointestinal endoscopy: flexible fiberoptic tube is placed through the mouth or anus to visualize parts of the gastrointestinal tract
  • Liver biopsy: a needle is inserted percutaneously into the liver, and a sample of liver tissue is removed for microscopic examination
  • Nasogastric intubation: a nasogastric tube (NG tube) is passed through the nose into the stomach and upper region of the small intestine
  • Paracentesis (abdominocentesis): surgical puncture to remove fluid from the abdomen (peritoneal cavity)

Respiratory System

• Respiration is the mechanical process of breathing, involving the exchange of air between the lungs and the external environment (external respiration)
• External respiration process
  • oxygen inhalation into the air sacs of the lungs, then into capillary blood vessels
  • simultaneously, carbon dioxide, a gas produced when oxygen and food combine in cells, passes from the blood into the air spaces to be exhaled
  • inhaled air contains about 21% oxygen
  • exhaled air contains about 16% oxygen
• Internal Cellular Respiration, an exchange of gases between individual body cells and the capillary blood vessels that surround them
  • Oxygen passes from the bloodstream into tissue cells, and carbon dioxide goes from tissue cells into the bloodstream to be carried back to the lungs

Anatomy Of The Respiratory System

• Nose: Air enters the body

• Nasal Cavity: Lined with mucous membrane and cilia to filter foreign bodies, and to warm and moisten the air

• Paranasal Sinuses: Hollow, air-containing spaces within the skull that communicate with the nasal cavity, providing mucus, lightening skull bones, and helping produce sound

• Pharynx (Throat): has subsections of nasopharynx, oropharynx, and hypopharynx (laryngopharynx) and acts as a common passageway for food and air, dividing into the larynx and esophagus

• Esophagus: Leads to the stomach for food digestion

• Larynx (Voice box): Contains vocal cords and is supported by cartilage (including the thyroid cartilage – Adam's apple), and sounds are produced as air is expelled past the vibrating vocal cords

• Epiglottis: Flap of cartilage covers the glottis during swallowing to prevent food and liquid from entering

• Trachea (Windpipe): A vertical tube about 4-1/2 inches long and 1 inch in diameter, kept open by 16-20 C-shaped rings of cartilage

• Bronchi: Trachea divides into two branches in the mediastinum, each leading to a separate lung

• Bronchioles: Smaller and finer tubes that branch from the bronchi

• Alveoli: Clusters of air sacs at the end of the bronchioles, made of a one-cell layer of epithelium, to allow gas exchange between the alveolus and surrounding capillaries. Oxygen is bound to hemoglobin in erythrocytes and carried to all parts of the body

Lungs and Pleura

• Each lung is enveloped in a double-folded membrane called the pleura
  • Parietal pleura = outer layer, nearest the ribs
  • Visceral pleura = inner layer, closest to the lung
• The pleura is moistened with a serous fluid, facilitating lung movement within the thorax
• The right lung is slightly larger and divided into three lobes, while the left lung is divided into two lobes.
  • Apex: the uppermost part of the lung
  • Base: the lower area of the lung
  • Hilum (hilus): the midline region where blood vessels, nerves, lymphatic tissue, and bronchial tubes enter and exit

Diaphragm

• Diaphragm (a muscular partition) separates the thoracic from the abdominal cavity and aids in breathing
  • Inhalation (Inspiration): diaphragm contracts and descends, enlarging the thoracic cavity and reducing air pressure, causing air to flow into the lungs
  • Exhalation (Expiration): diaphragm relaxes and elevates, reducing the thoracic cavity size and increasing air pressure, which causes air to be expelled from the lungs

Circulatory System

• Consists of blood, vessels, and heart, transports food and oxygen to organs and cells
  • Blood vessels in the lungs absorb oxygen, and blood vessels in small intestine absorb food substances
  • Blood vessels also carry waste materials to the lungs and kidneys
• Blood Vessels:
  • Arteries: large vessels carrying blood away from the heart with walls which withstand high pressure, being strong and elastic
  • Arterioles: smaller branches of arteries that carry blood to capillaries
  • Capillaries: Microscopic vessels with walls only only cell thick, and allowing passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste
  • Venules: small veins which carry blood back to the heart from capillaries
  • Veins: vessels carrying blood toward the heart that are thinner-walled than arteries with valves to prevent backflow

Anatomy of the Heart

• The heart is a four-chambered pump: two atria (upper chambers) and two ventricles (lower chambers)

  • Right side: receives oxygen-deficient blood and sends it to the lungs
  • Left side: receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the body

• Oxygen-poor blood enters the heart through the venae cavae (superior and inferior) into the right atrium

  • The right atrium contracts, forcing blood through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle
  • The right ventricle pumps blood through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery, which carries blood to the lungs

• Oxygenated blood returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins into the left atrium

  • The left atrium contracts, forcing blood through the mitral valve into the left ventricle
  • The left ventricle pumps blood through the aortic valve into the aorta, which carries blood to the body

• Heart Wall Layers:

  • Endocardium: inner lining of the heart
  • Myocardium: middle, muscular layer
  • Pericardium: sac surrounding the heart, with visceral and parietal layers

Heartbeat and Heart Sounds

• Diastole (Relaxation): ventricle walls relax, blood flows into the heart, and the tricuspid and mitral valves are open with pulmonary and aortic valves are closed
• Systole (Contraction): ventricle walls contract pumping blood into the pulmonary artery and aorta, closing the tricuspid and mitral valves
• Cardiac cycle occurs about 70-80 times per minute with the pulse felt through artery walls.

Conduction System of the Heart

• The sinoatrial node (SA node), or pacemaker, in the right atrium generates an electrical impulse, causing the atria to contract
  • The impulse passes to the atrioventricular node (AV node), then to the bundle of His, which divides into right and left bundle branches, causing the ventricles to contract
  • Detects electrical changes by an electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG)

Cardiovascular System Diseases and Conditions

• Mitral Valve Prolapse (MVP): improper closure of the mitral valve during blood pumping

• Murmur: an extra heart sound heard between normal beats

• Pericarditis: inflammation of the pericardium

• Rheumatic Heart Disease: heart disease caused by rheumatic fever in childhood following a streptococcal infection (damage to the heart valves may result from repeated rheumatic fever attacks)

• Aneurysm: A local widening of an artery due to arterial wall weakness or breakdown, often caused by atherosclerosis

• Hypertension:

  • High blood pressure
  • A reading of 140/90 mmHg or higher considered high in
  • Essential hypertension: the cause of high blood pressure is idiopathic (Treatments include diuretics and beta-blockers)
  • Secondary hypertension: elevated blood pressure due to an associated lesion (such as glomerulonephritis, pyelonephritis, or adrenal gland disease)

• Peripheral Vascular Disease

• Blockage of blood vessels (especially in the lower extremities) due to atherosclerosis

• Raynaud's Phenomenon: short episodes of pallor and numbness in fingers and toes due to temporary constriction of arterioles in the skin

• Varicose Veins: abnormally swollen and twisted veins in the legs due to damaged valves causing blood backflow

Laboratory Tests and Clinical Procedures

• Lipid Tests: Lipids are fatty substances in foods and the body (including cholesterol and triglycerides)
  • Lipid tests measure the amounts of these substances in a blood sample with high levels increasing risk of atherosclerosis
  • A cholesterol level below 200 mg/dL in adults in associated with a relatively low risk fro coronary artery disease (CAD)
  • A diet high in saturated fats increases blood cholesterol, while polyunsaturated fats do not.
• Lipoprotein Electrophoresis:
  • Lipoproteins are proteins carrying lipids in the bloodstream, and protein electrophoresis separates lipoproteins from a blood sample.
  • High levels of low-density (LDL) and very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) are associated with atherosclerosis.
  • High levels of high-density lipoproteins (HDL) protect against atherosclerosis by removing cholesterol. Factors that increase HDL include estrogen, exercise, and moderate alcohol consumption.
• Serum Enzyme Tests:
  • During a myocardial infarction, enzymes are released into the bloodstream from dying heart muscle (measurements can indicate such indication)
    • Enzymes tested = Creatine phosphokinase (CPK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)
    • tests available measure myoglobin and troponin-T
• X-Ray Tests:
  • Angiography: dye is injected into the bloodstream or heart chamber to produce x-rays of the heart and large blood vessels (if dye is injected into the aorta or an artery in the groin the procedure is called arteriography)
• Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA):
  • Video equipment and a computer are used to produce x-ray pictures of blood vessels
    • An x-ray is taken of the area to be studied and stored
    • Contrast material is injected into a vein and recorded
    • Computer compares the two images and subtracts the first image from the second (leaving nothing but an image with the contrast medium and vessels)
• Measures (Blood Flow Doppler Ultrasound):
  • Sound waves focusing on a blood vessel to measure echoes bouncing off red blood cells to indicate stenosis (used to detect vascular occlusion in the arms, neck, or legs)
• Echocardiography (ECHO)
  • Pulses of high-frequency sound waves ultrasound are transmitted into the chest, and echoes returning plotted to show the structure and the movement of the heart
• Radioactive Tests
  • Cardiac Scan: a radioactive substance is injected intravenously, and its accumulation in heart muscle is measured with a scanner to demonstrates ischemia and myocardial infection
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) -uses magnetic waves beamed at the heart to produce an image with detailed info about congenital heart disease, cardiac masses, and lesions of large blood vessels before surgery
• Other Procedures
  • Cardiac Catheterization: a thin, flexible tube catheter is inserted into a vein or artery and guided into the heart to detect pressures and blood flow patterns
  • Cardioversion (Defibrillation): brief electrical discharges applied to the chest to stop cardiac arrhythmia as a means to restore normal rhythm
  • Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting (CABG): connections using vessel grafts (usually veins from other body parts) to existing coronary arteries to bypass blockages and supply oxygenated blood to the myocardium
• Electrocardiography (EKG, ECG): Electrical activity of the heart which is recorded
• Endarterectomy: the surgical removal of the innermost lining of an artery thickened by fatty deposits (atheromas and thromboses)
• Extracorporeal Circulation: A heart-lung machine to bypass the heart and lungs with blood that is oxygenated outside the body and is returned to the bloodstream
• Heart Transplantation: The donor’s heart replaces a diseased heart
• Holter Monitoring: A portable electrocardiograph which worn for 24 hours to detect cardiac arrhythmias
• Percutaneous Transluminal Coronary Angioplasty (PTCA): insert a balloon cather into a coronary artery to compress fatty deposits and up the artery. (aka balloon catheter dilation)
• Balloon Valvuloplasty: to open narrowed cardiac valves that may serve as an alternative to surgery for valvular stenosis

Stress Test

• Measures heart's response to exertion / stress by measuring an ECG, blood pressure, and measures heart rate with changes indicating ischemia
• Aka the Exercise Tolerance Test (ETT)

Thrombolytic Therapy

• the injection of of drugs like tPA and streptokinase to dissolve clots in patients with coronary thrombosis to help restore blood flow and avoid muscle damage (within 12 hours of a heart attack)

Excretory System

• Removes urea from the bloodstream and maintains water, salts (acid), balance
  • Kidneys secrete rennin for blood pressure control and erythropoietin for red blood cell production
  • Secretes active version of vitamin D for calcium absorption
  • Enzymes extract hormones, bloodstream e.g. insulin parathyroid

Anatomy of Major Organs

• Kidneys: behind abdominal near spine - Embedded in adipose and by fibrous tissue. Size 4-6 oz. outer part cortex inner part = medulla Hilum = depression, blood vessels and nerves,

• Uterus Mucus lined, conveys kidney/ Urinary bladder, Urine is reservoir for, (Trigone is space, ureters enter urethra), Urethra membraneous expulsion called micturition (outer urinary meatus 2 types female and -male

• Excretion

  • Renal to ureter to bladder - sphincters, (prevent, urine to uretheres)

• How Kidneys Produce Urine

  • Blood Entry: aorta to renal arteries then arterioles (to the cortex)

  • Blood Flow Maintenance: The product is rennin leading to formation stimulate contraction of arterioles glomerulus and pressure/ flow are restore

  • Circulation- Arteries = coiled capillaries, 1 million Filtration water/salt/sugar/ and urea filter (to, Bowman's Capsule) only, proteins blood remain Blood.

• Reabsorption- filtrate - renal tube, Reabsorb water - some salts w- circulates/ tubules essential sub.

• Urine Formation -Waste, water, salt aicd to Urine basin -Small cups to calices

• Exrection- renal pelvis through Sphincters prevent urination

Flow Diagram Of Urine Formation and Excretion

• Renal Artery
  • Arrioles Glomerulus Bowman's cap renal tubule reabsorption and coleecting 7 renal to 3 Ureter
• A bladder / uritha (or urinating)

Urinary System Vocab

   - Arterioles (small, artery),

• Bowman's Capsule cap shaped

  • calyx (Collecting region),
    • catheter, a tube)

• ccreatine, Cortex (outer) Electrolyte (chemical that carries energy).

• erythropoietin (hormone,kidney , to the blood cel product,

  • Flitration Glomerulus( some)

• Glom- balls -Hilum (pit) Kidney( side, one two) Merthus medulla opening canals

• Nitric/Wastes =contaning in/ urethr

• Reabsorption" process to regain necessary body fluids, Renale pelvis ,

• tubules carries- blood -kidney synth"

• Renlin hormone raises pressure constion. Trigone, triar uterus/ bladder exits,

• Urea waste urine, tubess, or duct acid urith,

Pathological Terminology Kidney & Conditions

• Glomerulonephritis (kideny/disease,
• nephriti-Inter- inflammat intersition.
• Nephrolithiasis (stone remol/calcul)
• Nethro- ( symps)
• Excess protein Nethro" Multi liquid sacks- Polycytic Pyole , Renal cell Renal failure cancer / adult

Wilms "child

• B cancer (bladder -cencer

Term, Definitiions for kidney disorders

• Diabetes (kidnay/anti"
• Diamesllitus" and im proper utlization

Laboratory test

• test/description measure area in blood
• creatinine (abiltiy remov, cre"
• creatnint cre")

clinical proc

Describe tests CT" trans/ x ray) Iv- a vein and show ( orgam( Kidney)

• Kub" Record size location R" contrasts + xrays Ultra, sound tumor Radioshotopes kidney function MRI pelvic

• Cysts (visuals

Diatsis

• lithotrysy, wave/ crush ( kidney transplant )
• Cathet tube into dritan urine

Blood System Function

• Maintain living tissues body "transport hormone though body

Composition

A. element cells platels 45 percent

• liquid to 85 percent water

a/Major"

• A ( maintain, b antibody destroy f tissue.

• fibrino and "lotting proteins

• Blood Cell: marriow all in blood

• Eryhtes

• disk oxygen 2 gas'

Terms- Definitions continued

• Macrophag , removes body ,
• platelet (red marrow) help lott bone
• Lyjmho" ( lymph tissue produce

Neutrohil ( marrow or cells) Palms"

1. • • Cell stem=

Pathological Conditions

• Thalassemia

• Deficency of hemogloin

• -pancer,

• Leukmia

• • Anemias""

• Lack due A)

• • all stem (panco)

• reduction in (Hemo" or Spher

• B12(

• Lymph nodes lymph nodes that can be located in area Immune resist damage

Natural and Aquired imunity-

• Aquired( a.a.," "b a-i)

Muscle Skeletal Systems: Overviews

• Musculs includes , protect organ and assist " inner core" for storage

• processes for attacthments

  • Long"

  -Parts:

  • epha" and