Anatomy of the Thorax

Thorax

• Located between the neck and abdomen
• Flattened in the front and behind, but rounded at the sides
• Thoracic cage protects the lungs and heart, and provides attachment for muscles of the thorax, upper extremity, abdomen, and back

Structure of the Thoracic Walls

• Outer part covered by skin and muscles attached to the shoulder girdle
• Inner part lined with parietal pleura
• Formed by:
  • Anteriorly: 12 pairs of ribs with their costal cartilages and the sternum
  • Posteriorly: thoracic part of the vertebral column (12 thoracic vertebrae T1-T12)
  • Laterally: ribs and intercostal spaces
  • Superiorly: suprapleural membrane
  • Inferiorly: diaphragm, which separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity

Bones of the Thorax

• Divided into 3 main groups:
  • Sternum
  • Ribs
  • Thoracic spine
• Key features of the sternum:
  • Sternoclavicular joint
  • Sternal manubrium
  • Sternal angle
  • Sternal body
  • Suprasternal notch
  • Clavicular notch
  • Sternocostal joint
  • Xiphoid process

Concept of Error

• Error is a crucial issue that has concerned scholars and sparked widespread debate, both in the past and present.
• Ibn Manzur defined error as the opposite of correctness, implying deviation from the right thing.

Linguistic Error

• Linguistic error refers to a deviation from the accepted language norms, violating the rules and conventions of the language at various levels (morphological, syntactical, or phonological).
• Causes of linguistic errors are multiple and varied.

Types of Linguistic Errors

• Orthographic Errors: errors that affect the meaning, clarity, and structure of words, often due to incorrect spelling, addition or deletion of letters, or incorrect diacritics.

  • Examples:
    • Omitting or confusing the hamza (ء) with the waaw (و)
    • Confusing the feminine suffix (ة) with the possessive pronoun (ه)
    • Misusing the shortened (ى) or lengthened (ا) forms of the letter alif
    • Failing to write silent letters with the diacritic alif khunjr (ألف التفريق)

• Syntactical Errors: errors that occur when words are not properly arranged within a sentence, violating grammatical rules.

  • Examples:
    • Inadequate or incorrect use of grammatical rules
    • Misusing or confusing grammatical markers (e.g., case endings)
    • Errors in verb conjugation, noun declension, or sentence structure

• Morphological Errors: errors in the formation of words, leading to incorrect or ambiguous meanings.

  • Examples:
    • Failing to recognize changes in word structure due to context or grammatical function
    • Misusing or confusing word patterns, such as mahab (महब) vs. mahib (محب) or sahafi (صحافي) vs. sahabi (صحبي)

• Written Errors: errors in writing that reflect a lack of mastery of Arabic language skills.

  • Examples:
    • Confusing the feminine suffix (ة) with the possessive pronoun (ه)
    • Failing to write the correct diacritic mark on the letter alif
    • Omitting or incorrectly writing points on consonants (e.g., ya' vs. alif)
    • Writing the letters ṣād (ص) and ḍād (ض) without their distinctive marks