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What is the name of the imaginary plane that passes longitudinally through the body and divides it into right and left halves?
What is the name of the imaginary plane that passes longitudinally through the body and divides it into right and left halves?
What is the name of the plane that passes at right angles to the median plane and divides the body into anterior and posterior?
What is the name of the plane that passes at right angles to the median plane and divides the body into anterior and posterior?
What term describes the direction of a body part that is nearer to the head?
What term describes the direction of a body part that is nearer to the head?
The term "medial" refers to a structure that is:
The term "medial" refers to a structure that is:
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What term describes the movement that decreases the angle between bones or parts of the body?
What term describes the movement that decreases the angle between bones or parts of the body?
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Which term describes the movement that moves a body part away from the median plane?
Which term describes the movement that moves a body part away from the median plane?
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Which term describes the movement that moves a body part toward the median plane?
Which term describes the movement that moves a body part toward the median plane?
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The term "ipsilateral" refers to structures that are on the opposite side of the body.
The term "ipsilateral" refers to structures that are on the opposite side of the body.
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The term "unilateral" refers to structures that are on both sides of the body.
The term "unilateral" refers to structures that are on both sides of the body.
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The term "circumduction" describes a circular movement that involves sequential flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction.
The term "circumduction" describes a circular movement that involves sequential flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction.
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Medial rotation refers to the movement of the anterior surface of a limb closer to the median plane.
Medial rotation refers to the movement of the anterior surface of a limb closer to the median plane.
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Pronation is the rotation of the radius laterally so that the palm of the hand faces anteriorly.
Pronation is the rotation of the radius laterally so that the palm of the hand faces anteriorly.
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Eversion is the movement of the sole of the foot in which the sole faces inwards and medially.
Eversion is the movement of the sole of the foot in which the sole faces inwards and medially.
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Opposition is the movement by which the 1st digit (thumb) is brought to another digit.
Opposition is the movement by which the 1st digit (thumb) is brought to another digit.
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Protrusion is the movement in which a part of the body moves backwards on a plane parallel to the ground.
Protrusion is the movement in which a part of the body moves backwards on a plane parallel to the ground.
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Elevation raises a part of the body superiorly, and depression lowers a part of the body inferiorly.
Elevation raises a part of the body superiorly, and depression lowers a part of the body inferiorly.
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The term "proximal" refers to a structure that is farther from the trunk or point of origin.
The term "proximal" refers to a structure that is farther from the trunk or point of origin.
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The term "deep" refers to a structure that is nearer to the surface.
The term "deep" refers to a structure that is nearer to the surface.
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Which type of fascia is devoid of fat and covers most of the body deep to the skin and subcutaneous tissue?
Which type of fascia is devoid of fat and covers most of the body deep to the skin and subcutaneous tissue?
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What structures are formed by the thickening of deep fascia to retain the tendons of long muscles in place?
What structures are formed by the thickening of deep fascia to retain the tendons of long muscles in place?
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Deep fascia condenses to form a sheath around which structures?
Deep fascia condenses to form a sheath around which structures?
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Which of the following statements is true about the ligaments of joints?
Which of the following statements is true about the ligaments of joints?
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Which type of bone develops from mesenchymal membrane?
Which type of bone develops from mesenchymal membrane?
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Which type of bone is dense in texture and adapted to bending and twisting forces?
Which type of bone is dense in texture and adapted to bending and twisting forces?
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The shaft of a long bone is called the diaphysis.
The shaft of a long bone is called the diaphysis.
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The ends of a long bone are called the epiphyses.
The ends of a long bone are called the epiphyses.
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The growth zone of a long bone where growth in length occurs is called the metaphysis.
The growth zone of a long bone where growth in length occurs is called the metaphysis.
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The periosteum is a connective tissue covering that is found on the outer surface of a bone.
The periosteum is a connective tissue covering that is found on the outer surface of a bone.
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The endosteum is a thin cellular membrane that lines the marrow cavity of spongy bone.
The endosteum is a thin cellular membrane that lines the marrow cavity of spongy bone.
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Primary ossification centers appear before birth, and secondary ossification centers appear after birth.
Primary ossification centers appear before birth, and secondary ossification centers appear after birth.
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Pressure epiphyses are produced by the pull of the attached muscle, and traction epiphyses are produced by the body weight and protect epiphyseal cartilage.
Pressure epiphyses are produced by the pull of the attached muscle, and traction epiphyses are produced by the body weight and protect epiphyseal cartilage.
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Avascular necrosis is the death of bone tissue due to a loss of blood supply.
Avascular necrosis is the death of bone tissue due to a loss of blood supply.
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The epiphyseal cartilage in an X-ray may be mistaken for a fracture.
The epiphyseal cartilage in an X-ray may be mistaken for a fracture.
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Cartilage is vascular, tough, and resilient connective tissue.
Cartilage is vascular, tough, and resilient connective tissue.
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Hyaline cartilage is translucent, white, and resilient, and is found in articular cartilages, costal cartilage, and the cartilages of the nose, larynx, trachea, and bronchi.
Hyaline cartilage is translucent, white, and resilient, and is found in articular cartilages, costal cartilage, and the cartilages of the nose, larynx, trachea, and bronchi.
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Cartilage grows slowly and has poor regeneration after injury.
Cartilage grows slowly and has poor regeneration after injury.
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The sites where two skeletal elements come together are called joints.
The sites where two skeletal elements come together are called joints.
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Gomphosis is a type of joint found between the root of a tooth and its socket in the alveolar processes of the maxillary and mandibular bones.
Gomphosis is a type of joint found between the root of a tooth and its socket in the alveolar processes of the maxillary and mandibular bones.
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Primary cartilaginous joints are temporary unions of cartilage and eventually become bone.
Primary cartilaginous joints are temporary unions of cartilage and eventually become bone.
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Secondary cartilaginous joints are also known as symphyses, and they are found between the joints of vertebral bodies.
Secondary cartilaginous joints are also known as symphyses, and they are found between the joints of vertebral bodies.
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The articular surfaces of opposing bones in a synovial joint are coated with hyaline cartilage.
The articular surfaces of opposing bones in a synovial joint are coated with hyaline cartilage.
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The joint cavity, which is the space between articular surfaces, is filled with blood vessels and nerves.
The joint cavity, which is the space between articular surfaces, is filled with blood vessels and nerves.
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The synovial membrane lines the inner aspect of the joint cavity and secretes synovial fluid.
The synovial membrane lines the inner aspect of the joint cavity and secretes synovial fluid.
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The presence of a disc between articular surfaces is a common feature of many joints, and these discs help to maintain perfect contact between the moving surfaces.
The presence of a disc between articular surfaces is a common feature of many joints, and these discs help to maintain perfect contact between the moving surfaces.
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The stability of a joint is affected by bony contours, ligaments, and muscles, and these three factors contribute to stability in an equal degree.
The stability of a joint is affected by bony contours, ligaments, and muscles, and these three factors contribute to stability in an equal degree.
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Ligaments are strong, elastic structures that are very effective in guarding against continuous stress.
Ligaments are strong, elastic structures that are very effective in guarding against continuous stress.
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Muscles are the most important factor in maintaining joint stability.
Muscles are the most important factor in maintaining joint stability.
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Hilton's Law states that the nerves supplying the muscles that move a joint also supply the skin overlying the insertions of those muscles.
Hilton's Law states that the nerves supplying the muscles that move a joint also supply the skin overlying the insertions of those muscles.
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Joint replacement surgery is only performed in cases of extreme pain and disability.
Joint replacement surgery is only performed in cases of extreme pain and disability.
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Arthroscopy is a procedure that involves the use of small incisions to visualize the inside of a joint using a small camera and instruments.
Arthroscopy is a procedure that involves the use of small incisions to visualize the inside of a joint using a small camera and instruments.
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Skeletal muscle is voluntary, striated muscle.
Skeletal muscle is voluntary, striated muscle.
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Skeletal muscle fibers are composed of elongated muscle cells called sarcomeres.
Skeletal muscle fibers are composed of elongated muscle cells called sarcomeres.
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A muscle that is responsible for a particular movement is called a prime mover.
A muscle that is responsible for a particular movement is called a prime mover.
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Smooth muscle is involuntary, striated muscle and it is found in the walls of internal organs, such as the stomach and intestines.
Smooth muscle is involuntary, striated muscle and it is found in the walls of internal organs, such as the stomach and intestines.
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Cardiac muscle is voluntary, striated muscle and it is found only in the heart.
Cardiac muscle is voluntary, striated muscle and it is found only in the heart.
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Intercalated discs are found in cardiac muscle and serve as sites of attachment between cardiac muscle cells.
Intercalated discs are found in cardiac muscle and serve as sites of attachment between cardiac muscle cells.
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Muscle atrophy is the loss of skeletal muscle mass, and it can be caused by immobility, aging, and malnutrition.
Muscle atrophy is the loss of skeletal muscle mass, and it can be caused by immobility, aging, and malnutrition.
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The cardiovascular system includes the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels.
The cardiovascular system includes the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels.
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The pulmonary circulation carries blood from the left ventricle to the lungs and back to the right atrium.
The pulmonary circulation carries blood from the left ventricle to the lungs and back to the right atrium.
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Arteries are thicker walled than accompanying veins, they have no valves, and they are usually accompanied by a vein and a nerve.
Arteries are thicker walled than accompanying veins, they have no valves, and they are usually accompanied by a vein and a nerve.
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Large, or elastic, arteries contain a large amount of elastic fibers and their walls are able to expand considerably. The aorta serves as a reservoir, converting intermittent flow from the heart to continuous flow.
Large, or elastic, arteries contain a large amount of elastic fibers and their walls are able to expand considerably. The aorta serves as a reservoir, converting intermittent flow from the heart to continuous flow.
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Arterioles are the smallest division of the arteries, and they have walls that are relatively thick in relation to the lumen, and they contain mostly smooth muscle.
Arterioles are the smallest division of the arteries, and they have walls that are relatively thick in relation to the lumen, and they contain mostly smooth muscle.
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Metarterioles emerge from arterioles, traverse the capillary network, and empty into venules. Precapillary sphincters, which are ring-like smooth muscles, are located at the junction of the metarteriole and the capillary and help to regulate blood flow through the capillaries.
Metarterioles emerge from arterioles, traverse the capillary network, and empty into venules. Precapillary sphincters, which are ring-like smooth muscles, are located at the junction of the metarteriole and the capillary and help to regulate blood flow through the capillaries.
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Venules are the smallest veins, and they drain the capillaries.
Venules are the smallest veins, and they drain the capillaries.
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Capillary walls are permeable to water, crystalloids, and some plasma proteins but impermeable to large molecules.
Capillary walls are permeable to water, crystalloids, and some plasma proteins but impermeable to large molecules.
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Continuous capillaries have a continuous endothelial lining, and they are found in muscle.
Continuous capillaries have a continuous endothelial lining, and they are found in muscle.
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Anatomical end arteries do not anastomose with neighboring arteries. If an anatomical end artery is occluded, it will result in tissue death.
Anatomical end arteries do not anastomose with neighboring arteries. If an anatomical end artery is occluded, it will result in tissue death.
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The walls of veins are thicker than the walls of arteries, and veins have valves to prevent backflow of blood.
The walls of veins are thicker than the walls of arteries, and veins have valves to prevent backflow of blood.
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Venae commitantes are two veins that accompany a medium-sized artery.
Venae commitantes are two veins that accompany a medium-sized artery.
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Ischemia is a condition in which a localized area of muscular tissue is dead owing to insufficient blood supply.
Ischemia is a condition in which a localized area of muscular tissue is dead owing to insufficient blood supply.
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Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory reaction in the walls of the arteries, and it is characterized by the deposition of cholesterol and fatty proteins.
Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory reaction in the walls of the arteries, and it is characterized by the deposition of cholesterol and fatty proteins.
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The nervous system can be divided into the central nervous system, which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, which includes all the nerves that extend outside of the central nervous system.
The nervous system can be divided into the central nervous system, which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, which includes all the nerves that extend outside of the central nervous system.
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The brain lies within the cranium, and it receives information from and controls the activities of the trunk and limbs mostly through connections with the spinal cord. It also communicates with structures in the head and neck through 12 pairs of cranial nerves.
The brain lies within the cranium, and it receives information from and controls the activities of the trunk and limbs mostly through connections with the spinal cord. It also communicates with structures in the head and neck through 12 pairs of cranial nerves.
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The spinal cord lies within the vertebral canal and is continuous with the medulla oblongata of the brainstem. It is protected by layers of fibrous tissue called meninges.
The spinal cord lies within the vertebral canal and is continuous with the medulla oblongata of the brainstem. It is protected by layers of fibrous tissue called meninges.
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The main role of the central nervous system is integrate and coordinate incoming and outgoing neural signals for higher mental functions, such as thinking and learning.
The main role of the central nervous system is integrate and coordinate incoming and outgoing neural signals for higher mental functions, such as thinking and learning.
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Cranial nerves are the means by which the brain receives information from and sends information to the head and neck, as well as the thoracic and abdominal viscera.
Cranial nerves are the means by which the brain receives information from and sends information to the head and neck, as well as the thoracic and abdominal viscera.
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Spinal nerves exit from the vertebral canal via the intervertebral foramina, and they contain a mixture of sensory and motor fibers.
Spinal nerves exit from the vertebral canal via the intervertebral foramina, and they contain a mixture of sensory and motor fibers.
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The dorsal root of a spinal nerve contains afferent nerve fibers from cell bodies in the dorsal root ganglia, which include motor neurons innervating skeletal muscle.
The dorsal root of a spinal nerve contains afferent nerve fibers from cell bodies in the dorsal root ganglia, which include motor neurons innervating skeletal muscle.
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The ventral root of a spinal nerve contains efferent nerve fibers from cell bodies in the gray matter of the spinal cord. The most important of these neurons are motor neurons, which innervate skeletal muscles.
The ventral root of a spinal nerve contains efferent nerve fibers from cell bodies in the gray matter of the spinal cord. The most important of these neurons are motor neurons, which innervate skeletal muscles.
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The ventral rami of spinal nerves innervate the limbs and the skin of the anterior part of the trunk. The dorsal rami of spinal nerves innervate the post-vertebral muscles and the skin of the back.
The ventral rami of spinal nerves innervate the limbs and the skin of the anterior part of the trunk. The dorsal rami of spinal nerves innervate the post-vertebral muscles and the skin of the back.
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The autonomic nervous system is responsible for controlling the involuntary functions of the body, such as heart rate, digestion, and breathing.
The autonomic nervous system is responsible for controlling the involuntary functions of the body, such as heart rate, digestion, and breathing.
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Study Notes
Anatomy - General Gross Anatomy
- Anatomical Position: Standing erect, facing forward, upper limbs at sides, palms forward, feet together, toes forward.
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Four Imaginary Planes:
- Median (midsagittal) plane: Divides the body into right and left halves.
- Sagittal plane: Any vertical plane parallel to the median plane.
- Coronal (frontal) plane: Passes at a right angle to the median plane, dividing the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions.
- Horizontal (transverse) plane: Passes at a right angle to both the median and sagittal planes, dividing the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions.
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Sections of the Body:
- Longitudinal sections: Run parallel to the long axis of the body or a part of it.
- Transverse sections (cross sections): Cut at a right angle to the body's longitudinal axis.
- Oblique sections: Not cut along any of the previously mentioned planes, in a slanting direction.
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Terms of Relationship and Comparison:
- Superior (cranial): Towards the head.
- Inferior (caudal): Towards the feet.
- Posterior (dorsal): Towards the back.
- Anterior (ventral): Towards the front.
- Medial: Nearer to the median plane.
- Lateral: Farther from the median plane.
- Proximal: Closer to the trunk or point of origin of a limb.
- Distal: Further from the trunk or point of origin of a limb.
- Superficial: Closer to the surface.
- Deep: Further from the surface.
- Central: Towards the center of a mass.
- Peripheral: Away from the center of a mass.
- Ipsilateral: On the same side of the body.
- Contralateral: On the opposite side of the body.
- Unilateral: On one side only.
- Bilateral: On both sides.
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Terms of Movement:
- Flexion: Decreasing the angle between two body parts.
- Extension: Increasing the angle between two body parts.
- Abduction: Moving away from the median plane.
- Adduction: Moving towards the median plane.
- Circumduction: Circular movement of a limb.
- Medial (internal) rotation: Rotation towards the midline.
- Lateral (external) rotation: Rotation away from the midline.
- Pronation: Rotation of the forearm so the palm faces posteriorly.
- Supination: Rotation of the forearm so the palm faces anteriorly.
- Eversion: Turning the sole of the foot outward.
- Inversion: Turning the sole of the foot inward.
- Opposition: Movement of the thumb to touch another finger tip.
- Protrusion (protraction): Moving a part of the body forward.
- Retrusion (retraction): Moving a part of the body backward.
- Elevation: Moving a part superiorly.
- Depression: Moving a part inferiorly.
- Dorsiflexion: Bending the foot upward.
- Plantar flexion: Bending the foot downward.
Fascia
- Superficial fascia: Loose areolar tissue beneath the skin, containing fat.
- Deep fascia: Dense, fibrous tissue wrapping and supporting deep structures, often forming compartments and retinacula.
- Functions: Thermal insulation, cushioning, pathway for nerves/vessels/lymphatics, forming compartments to hold structures in place.
- Applied anatomy: Subcutaneous injections, ideal injection sites, effects of pain receptors in fascia.
Bone
- Introduction: Living structure of mineralized connective tissue supporting the body and providing attachments for muscles.
- Functions: Support, protection of organs, leverage for movement, mineral homeostasis (calcium/phosphate storage), blood cell production.
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Classification: Based on development (membranous or endochondral), shape (long, short, flat, irregular), or maturity (immature, mature).
- Long bones: Primarily for weight bearing and leverage, e.g., femur.
- Short bones: Cuboidal shape, e.g., carpals.
- Flat bones: Thin, broad shape, e.g., ribs.
- Irregular bones: Various shapes, e.g., vertebrae, skull bones.
- Sesamoid bones: Small, round bones embedded within tendons, e.g., patella.
- Structure: Compact (dense) and spongy (trabecular) bone tissue.
- Maturation: Immature, fetal, mature, adult bone.
- Regions: Axial (skull, spine, ribs, sternum) and appendicular (limbs).
Joints
- Definition: Areas where two or more bones meet.
- Classification: Fibrous (no joint cavity), cartilaginous (cartilage unites bones), or synovial (joint cavity).
- Example classes: Sutures (skull), syndesmoses (distal tibiofibular), gomphoses (teeth/socket), synchondroses (epiphyseal plates), symphyses (pubic symphysis), plane, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, and ball-and-socket.
- Structure: Articular cartilage, joint capsule, synovial membrane, synovial fluid, ligaments, tendons.
- Stability: Bony structure, ligaments, and muscles are important factors determining joint stability.
- Applied anatomy: Injury, joint replacement techniques, e.g., arthroscopy.
Muscles
- Definition: Specialized tissues able to contract, producing movement.
- Types: Skeletal (voluntary, striated), smooth (involuntary, non-striated), and cardiac (involuntary, striated).
- General characteristics: Ability for contraction and movement, capable of rapid contraction. Arrangement of muscle fibres: parallel, oblique (pennate, fusiform).
- Structure: Muscle fibers (basic unit), endomysium, perimysium, epimysium, tendons, aponeurosis, nerve and blood supply.
- Muscle actions: Prime movers, synergists, antagonists. Types of muscle contraction: isometric, concentric, eccentric.
Cardiovascular System/Blood Vessels
- Circulation: Pulmonary (heart to lungs, back to heart) and systemic (heart to body, back to heart).
- Blood Vessels: Arteries (carry blood away from heart), veins (carry blood to heart), capillaries (connect arteries and veins).
- Types of vessels: Elastic (large arteries), muscular (medium-sized arteries), arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins.
- Applied anatomy: Blood pressure, peripheral resistance, ischemia, infarctions, varicose veins, aneurysms
Nervous System
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Organization: Central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system.
- Central nervous system (CNS): Brain, spinal cord, cerebrospinal fluid, meninges.
- Peripheral nervous system (PNS): Cranial nerves, spinal nerves, ganglia.
- Somatic nervous system: Voluntary control of skeletal muscles.
- Autonomic nervous system: involuntary regulation of organs, glands, and smooth muscle.
- Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system: Opposite actions often work in tandem.
- Enteric nervous system: Independent nervous system of the gastrointestinal tract.
- Applied anatomy: Injuries to the spinal cord, intracranial hemorrhages, etc.
Cartilage
- Definition: Avascular, tough, resilient connective tissue.
- Types: Hyaline (e.g., articular cartilage, costal cartilage), fibrocartilage (e.g., intervertebral discs, menisci), and elastic cartilage.
- Structure: Types of cartilage vary slightly based on their function.
- Functions: Support, smooth movement in joints, growth of bone.
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Test your knowledge on general gross anatomy with this quiz. Explore anatomical positions, imaginary planes, and various body sections. Perfect for students and enthusiasts alike!
