Anatomy and Physiology Practice

Anatomy and Physiology

• Human anatomy is the study of body structure.
• The word anatomy comes from Greek, meaning "to cut" or "cutting backwards".
• Anatomy studies body structure in slices.
• Human physiology is the science of body functions.
• Physiology includes the study of homeostasis.
• Homeostasis is the process of maintaining balance in the body's organ systems.
• Structure and function of the body are closely related.

Subdivisions of Anatomy

• Surface anatomy studies the form and markings of the body surface through visualization or palpation.
• Gross anatomy studies anatomical structures visible to the unaided eye.
• Gross anatomy can be studied using a systemic or regional approach.
• Systemic anatomy involves studying all of the blood vessels, muscles, or bones at once.
• Regional anatomy involves studying all anatomical structures of a specific region together.
• Developmental anatomy studies the development of the fertilized egg into its adult form.
• Embryology is a subcategory of developmental anatomy, focusing on conception to the 8th week of gestation.
• Histology is the study of tissues.
• Cytology uses a microscope to study individual cellular structures.
• Pathology is the study of anatomical changes due to disease.
• Pathologists discover the source of the disease using gross inspection, cytologic, histologic, and laboratory examinations.

Clinical Connections and Autopsies

• An autopsy is a postmortem examination of the body and internal organs by a pathologist.
• Autopsies are performed to determine the cause of death.
• They are useful for identifying diseases not detected during life.
• They are performed to determine the extent of injuries and their contribution to death.
• They are performed to identify hereditary conditions.

Levels of Organization

• Chemical level includes atoms and molecules
• Cellular level includes cells.
• Tissue level includes tissues.
• Organ level includes organs.
• System level includes systems.
• Organism level includes organisms.

Cells

• Cells are the basic structural and functional units of an organism.
• Trained cytologists can recognize about 210 different kinds of cells under light microscopy.

Tissues

• Tissues are groups of cells that work together to perform a similar function.
• The four basic types of tissues: epithelium, muscle, connective tissue, and nerves.

Organs

• Organs are composed of two or more different types of tissues.
• Organs have specific functions and recognizable shapes.
• Skin consists of Epithelium, Connective Tissues, Nerves, and Muscle.

Organ Systems

• An organ system consists of related organs with a common function.
• The digestive system handles taking in and breaking down food, absorbing nutrients, and eliminating wastes
• The digestive system includes the organs: mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
• There are 11 organ systems in the body.

Essential Life Processes

• Metabolism is the sum of all the catabolic (breaking down) and anabolic (building up) chemical processes that occur in the body.
• Responsiveness is the body's ability to detect and respond to changes.
• Examples are decrease in body temperature, responding to sound, nerve electrical signals, and muscle cells contracting.
• Movement includes movement of tiny subcellular structures, or movement inside cells or organs.
• Muscles move the body.
• Growth involves an increase in body size due to an increase in existing or the number of cells
• In bone growth, materials between cells increase.
• Differentiation is the development of a cell from an unspecialized to specialized state.
• Stem cells give rise to cells that undergo differentiation.
• Reproduction is the formation of new cells (growth, repair, or replacement) or the production of a new individual.

Homeostasis

• Is the condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body's internal environment
• Keeps body functions within a narrow range Blood glucose levels range between 70 and 110 mg of glucose/dL of blood.
• Body fluids are dilute, watery solutions containing dissolved chemicals inside or outside of the cell.
• Maintaining the volume and composition of body fluids is important.
• Intracellular Fluid (ICF) is the fluid within cells.
• Extracellular Fluid (ECF) is the fluid outside cells.
• Interstitial fluid is ECF between cells and tissues.
• Blood Plasma is ECF within blood vessels.
• Lymph is ECF within lymphatic vessels.
• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is ECF in the brain and spinal cord.
• Synovial fluid is the ECF in joints.
• Aqueous humor is the ECF in eyes.
• Cellular function depends on the regulation of the composition of the interstitial fluid.
• Composition of interstitial fluid changes as substances move between plasma and the interstitial fluid.
• Movement back and forth across capillary walls provides nutrients (glucose, oxygen, and ions) to tissue cells, and removes waste (carbon dioxide).
• Control of homeostasis is constantly being challenged by physical insults, changes in the internal environment, and physiological stress.
• Disruptions are mild if balance is quickly restored.
• Intense disruptions can lead to disease (poisoning or severe infections) or death.

Feedback Systems

• Feedback systems involve a cycle of events where the body is monitored and re-monitored.
• Each monitored variable is termed a controlled condition.
• A receptor is used to monitor a controlled condition (such as body temperature) and sends input to a control center.
• Specialized nerve endings in the skin act as temperature receptors.
• A control center sets the range of values to be maintained, and is usually the brain.
• A control center evaluates input received from receptors and generate output commands.
• An effector receives output from the control center and produces a response that changes the controlled condition.
• Nearly every organ or tissue can serve as an effector.
• Negative feedback systems reverse a change in a controlled condition.
• An example of negative feedback is regulation of blood pressure.
• Blood Pressure regulation is a negative feedback system.
• External or internal stimulus increases Blood Pressure triggering the negative feedback system.
• Baroreceptors detect increased Blood Pressure and send nerve impulses to the brain (interpretation).
• Responses are sent via nerve impulses to the heart and blood vessels, causing Blood Pressure to drop.
• Positive feedback systems strengthens or reinforces a change in one of the body's controlled conditions.
• Normal childbirth is an example.
• Uterine contractions cause vagina to open.
• Stretch-sensitive receptors in cervix send impulses to brain.
• Oxytocin is released into the blood causing contractions are enhanced and baby pushes farther down the uterus.
• This cycle continues to the birth of the baby. If there is no stretching; the cycle ends.

Clinical Connection - Diagnosis

• Diagnosis is made by assessing signs and symptoms.
• Diagnosis requires a review of medical history.
• Diagnosis may involve a physical examination.
• Orderly evaluation of the body and its function.
• Looking for orderly evaluation of the body and its function

Organ Systems of the Body

• The integumentary system (Chapter 5) consists of related structures(hair, nails, and glands) and the skin.
• It protects the body, regulates temperature, and eliminates wastes.
• The skeletal System (Chapters 6-9) consists of joints and the bones.
• It houses cells that will become red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
• The muscular system (Chapters 10-11) consists of named skeletal muscles, as well as smooth muscle and cardiac muscle.
• This system, supports the skeletal system is vital for movement and posture.
• Generates the heat necessary for warm-blooded organisms to maintain a constant body temp.
• The nervous system (Chapters 12-17) consists of sensory organs), brain, nerves, and spinal cord.
• It senses and responds to body conditions via nerve impulses.
• The endocrine system(Chapter 18) is hormone-producing cells and glands scattered throughout the body.
• Regulates the body through chemical mechanisms; releasing hormones into the blood.
• The cardiovascular system(Chapters 19-21) consists of blood vessels, heart, and blood.
• This system carries blood and nutrients to specific locations.
• Also regulates body temperature and water balance.
• The Lymphatic system and immunity (Chapter 22) consists of lymphatic fluid, lymph nodes, and lymphocytes.
• Transports proteins/fats to the cardiovascular system
• Filters blood and protects against disease The respiratory system (Chapter 23) constists of the trachea and major airways.
• Extracts oxygen and eliminates
• Regulates acid/ base balance in conjunction with the kidneys. The digestive system(Chapter 24) of the esophagus, stomach and intestines.
• Accomplishes the physical and chemical breakdown of food and elimination of waste. The urinary system (Chapter 26) consists of kidney, ureters, bladder, and urethra.
• Collection and excretion of waste products in urine, and the regulation of fluid, electrolyte, & acid/base balance
• The reproductive system (Chapter 28) consists of the female (uterus and vagina) and male (testes and penis).
• Involved in reproduction of an individual or organism.

Anatomical Terminology

• Is a common language anatomist use when talking about structures/funcitons
• Definition of the standard atomical position is a key consept.

Anatomical Position

• In the anatomical position, the subject stands erect facing the observer with the head level, and the eyes facing forward.
• Feet are flat on the floor directed forward
• Arms are at their sides, palms are forward
• All anatomical descriptions are in reference to this position.

Directional Terms

• Superior: Above, top, towards head
• Inferior: Below, bottom, away from head
• Anterior (Ventral): Towards the front
• Posterior (Dorsal): Towards the back
• Medial: Towards the midline
• Lateral: Away from the midline
• Intermediate: Between medial and latera
• Proximal: Nearest to the origination
• Distal: Farther from origination
• Ipsilateral: Same side of the body
• Contralateral: Opposite side of the body
• Superficial: Towards the surface
• Deep: Towards the core of the body

Body Planes

• Body Planes are imaginary flat surfaces that separate the body or body part

• There are three major planes at right angles to one another.

• Sagittal (midline)

• Transverse(horizontal).

• Frontal(coronal). Also an oblique plane.

• Section are cuts into the body.*

• Sagittal planes divide the into right and left side

• There is only one midsagittal plane, and it divides into two mirror image halves.

• There are an infinite number of parasagittal planes split to the left and right creating unequal halves.

• Frontal or coronal planes divides the body (or organ) into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions.

• Transverse/ Cross-sectional/ Horizontal planes divide the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions

• Oblique planes are in addition to right angle sagittal, coronal, and transvere, in the body or organ at an angle.

Body Cavities

• Develops embryonically: The brain and spinal cord developing as a dorsal cavity/ Ventral with the remaining organs

• There are two major body cavities. These are:

• Dorsal/ventral cavities.

• Cranial Cavity (is formed by the cranial bones protects the brain).

• Vertebral Canal (formed by coloum bones with spinal cord is within. +Meninges (layers of protective tissues thatline crainial/vertebratal canals).

• Thoracic Cavity

• Fluid-filled Sacs and lungs

• Mediastinum (is the middle of Thoratic, doesn't include the body)

• The Lungs are not within mediastinum and the heart is the main organ within.*

• Abdonimopelvic Cavity

• Abdominal Cavity (encompasses the stomach, spleen, liver, gallgladder, small and large intensines

• The Pelic Cavity encompassess urinary bladder, organs of reroductive systems and large inenstines

• The diaphragm ( is a power muscle divided between theabdominla and throatic cavity

• Membranes of the Body Cavities are lined by serous membranes.

• The bodies serous membrane has "vicera that adheres to "viscera"

• Viceral Layer covers the organs with in cavities.

• Partial Layer that lives within the cavity wall.

Other body cavities

• Oral cavity (mouth)
• Nasal cavity
• Orbital cavities
• Middle ear Cavities
• Synovial cavities

Associated Body Organs

• Brain ( is the largest cavity with cranial nerves.

• Spinal Chords as well are surrounded by nerves.

• The throacic cavity

• Thtmus

• Esophogus

• Treachea

• Superior Vena Cava

• Heart Pericardial

• Lungs Pleural.

• Medial Imaging (techniques and procedures used to create imags of the human body used.

These provide

• Visualization
• Diganosis
• Anatonical and physciololical disorders.
• Radiography can be inexpesive and Quick
• Hollow strcutures appear "black and Gray"
• Dense structures apear "Bone"
• Mammagraphy
• Bondenositometry
• (MRI) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (Protons in in body align with the field, safe procedure can not be done if contains with metal.
• Uses tumors with visual aid(brain/blood flow). Provides 2D and 3D models.
• *CT" is used in a computer as to form a 3d immage (organize x-rats), details from the intensity of the tissue is gray
• Whole-body CT scan body gets a high dsoe of x-rats.
• Ultrasound scanning"Soogrghy" /
• High requiency / sound rates painfless andnon ivsaieve
• Saftey profile- progress used of a delipment. +Rediontide Scanning- substance redionudice

+Gammy Rates emissed used camera

• "Spect" form of techqnue

• PET(postion tommograpy- collision between positiveley charged practicles. (Eletrons and negaives produces "Gammy rays." studies the physiology.

• Edoscopy "images onto monitor"

• Colonoscopy " is the study colon"

• Laproscopy is the study of organs used to examine and abdomen pelic cavitiy

• Arthrocnopy- Is the study within the inner "Knee"

Clinical conentions.

• Diagnosis test are needed to" Access the fuinctionality" Palpatation "touchinboidy andsufacfe"
• Auscation- is listenening(body sounds) Perrcussion- tapping" on the body
• Medical Imaging alllows"visuliatin structures inside the body*

Test your knowledge of anatomy and physiology with these multiple-choice questions. Topics covered include serous membranes, body cavities, anatomical study methods, and the relationship between structure and function. Perfect for students and healthcare professionals.